Is the family universal? | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

George Peter Murdock: the Family is a Universal Social Institution

George Peter Murdock, in his study titled "Social Structure," analyzed the concept of family as a social institution across a diverse range of societies. Murdock's research included a sample of 250 societies, from small hunting and gathering groups to large-scale industrial civilizations. He found that some form of family was present in every society, leading him to conclude that the family is a universal social institution.

• Murdock defined the family as a social group characterized by shared residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It consists of adults of both sexes, with at least two of them engaging in a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, either biological or adopted, of the sexually involved adults. The family unit lives together, collaborates economically, and raises children according to the norms of their specific society. These norms vary across cultures.
• The structure of the family can differ depending on the society. The smallest family unit, known as the nuclear family, comprises a husband, wife, and their dependent children. Larger family units, typically referred to as extended families, can be formed by expanding the basic nuclear unit either vertically, by adding members from a third generation (such as the spouses' parents), or horizontally, by including members from the same generation as the spouses (such as a husband's brother or an additional wife).
• Murdock found that the nuclear family was present in every society in his sample, either as the only prevailing form of family or as the fundamental unit within an extended family. This led him to assert that the nuclear family is a universally occurring social grouping with distinct and essential functions in every known society. However, it is essential to note that Murdock's conclusions may not be entirely accurate, as other factors and perspectives could lead to different interpretations.

An Exception to the Family

The Nayar society in Kerala presents an exception to the traditional concept of family, as their customs and practices differ significantly from those in most societies. Their relationships, called Sambandham, were not lifelong unions, and either party could terminate the relationship at any time. Moreover, the Sambandham husband had no responsibility towards the offspring of their wives.

• The Nayar society was matrilineal, with the economic unit consisting of brothers, sisters, sisters' children, and their daughters' children. Marriage played no significant role in the formation of households, socializing of children, or meeting the economic needs of the members of the society.
• In the context of Murdock's definition of a family, which includes at least one adult of each sex, the Nayars of Kerala do not fit this definition. Their matrilineal extended family, called 'Taravad', consisted of consanguinely related men and women only. Married women lived with their mothers and siblings, while men in the family were occasional visitors to their wives in other Taravad households.
• This unique structure is also known as the 'visiting husband system'. As such, either Murdock's definition of the family is too narrow, or the family is not a universal concept. Gough argued that marriage and family existed in Nayar society but required a broader definition of marriage to include relationships where a child born to the woman is given full birth-status rights, as is common in the Nayar society.

In summary, the Nayar society in Kerala challenges the traditional concept of family and marriage, presenting an exception to Murdock's definition. This highlights the need for broader definitions and understanding of family structures across different societies and cultures.

Matrifocal Families – An Exception to the Rule

The concept of family, as defined by Murdock, entails the presence of at least one adult of each gender. However, in contemporary times as well as in the past, certain households deviate from this norm, with children being raised in the absence of adults from both genders. These households are predominantly women-led and can be found in a significant number of black families across the West Indies, parts of Central America such as Guyana, and the United States. Such family structures typically comprise a woman, her dependent children, and occasionally her mother. This observation potentially challenges the universality of Murdock's definition of the family or necessitates a redefinition that posits the minimal family unit as consisting of a woman and her dependent children, whether biological or adopted, with other family types being mere extensions of this core unit.

Families with women at the helm are sometimes referred to as matriarchal or matrifocal families, though these terminologies encompass multiple meanings. In this context, we will use the term "matrifocal family" to denote female-headed households. Several scholars advocate recognizing the matrifocal family as an alternative to the traditional nuclear family, in light of its prevalence in certain societies.

The Kibbutz – the Abolition of the Family

The Israeli kibbutz system presents a potential exception to Murdock's claim of the universality of the nuclear family. Approximately 4% of Israel's population resides in around 240 kibbutzim settlements, where capital and property are collectively owned, and the main economy is based on agriculture and light industry. The kibbutzim's family structure has been influenced by various ideological and economic factors.

• During the early days of the kibbutzim, all able-bodied adults were needed for the establishment of the settlements, leaving little time for intimate relationships between parents and children. The kibbutzim ideology emphasized gender equality and rejected traditional parental roles, particularly the mother's role. This was a response against the stereotype of the overprotective Jewish mother.
• Although there are variations among kibbutzim, the general pattern of family life involves monogamous marriages, with the couple sharing a single room for living and sleeping. However, their children live in communal dormitories and are raised by designated child caregivers or educators. These children spend the majority of their time away from their parents, seeing them only for a few hours each day, often in their parents' apartment. Parental authority is transferred to the community, and all children are considered and cared for as "children of the kibbutz."
• Economic cooperation between married couples is minimal, as both partners work for the kibbutz as a whole rather than for their individual family. They receive goods and services from the kibbutz, and communal facilities such as dining rooms and laundry services are provided for the entire community rather than for specific families. This means that economic cooperation occurs at a community level rather than a family level.
• Based on Murdock's definition, the family does not exist in the kibbutz for two reasons: family members do not share a common residence, and their relationship is not characterized by economic cooperation. Therefore, it can be argued that the family is not universal, as evidenced by the cases of the "Taravad" among the Nayars of Kerala, which does not meet Murdock's criterion of at least one spouse of each sex, and the kibbutz, which does not satisfy the criteria of common residence and economic cooperation.

Same Sex Couples

Same-sex couples and their households are presenting a challenge to the conventional understanding of family and marriage, as they do not align with Murdock's definition, which includes "adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship" (Murdock, 1949). These households may consist of two adult females or two adult males who care for children, who may be adopted, conceived through previous heterosexual relationships, or through new reproductive technologies such as sperm donation or surrogate motherhood. In some cases, a lesbian woman may conceive a child through sexual intercourse with a man, intending to raise the child with her female partner.

• While children raised by same-sex couples are more commonly seen in lesbian households due to the challenges gay men face in obtaining custody or adopting children, it is important to recognize that these households do exist. Some argue that these households should not be considered "proper" families since the couple cannot marry and the child has a genetic connection to only one of the partners. However, others, such as Sidney Callahan (1997), argue that same-sex households with children should be regarded as a type of family, especially when the couple intends to have a permanent relationship.
• Callahan believes that if marriage were an option for same-sex couples, many would choose to marry, and that the relationships within these households are fundamentally no different from those in heterosexual households. He suggests that same-sex households with children that consist of intimate communities of mutual support and display permanent shared commitments to intergenerational nurturing share the same kinship bonding that we observe and recognize as family. In conclusion, same-sex couples and their households challenge traditional definitions of family and marriage, but they can still be regarded as a type of family, especially when they exhibit the essential characteristics of love, support, and commitment.

The Universality of the Family – Conclusion

The universality of the family concept depends on its definition. It is evident that humans have developed a wide range of domestic arrangements that differ significantly from the 'traditional' families in contemporary industrial societies. As Diana Gittins states, relationships, co-residence, intimacy, sexuality, and emotional bonds are universally present, but their forms can be extremely diverse and subject to change and challenge, as well as acceptance. Trying to find a single definition that encompasses all types of households and relationships that can be reasonably considered as families might be a futile endeavor.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Is the family universal?

What is George Peter Murdock's definition of family?

Murdock defined the family as a social group characterized by shared residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It consists of adults of both sexes, with at least two of them engaging in a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, either biological or adopted, of the sexually involved adults.

How does the Nayar society of Kerala challenge Murdock's definition of family?

The Nayar society in Kerala presents an exception to the traditional concept of family, as their customs and practices differ significantly from those in most societies. Their relationships, called Sambandham, were not lifelong unions, and the Sambandham husband had no responsibility towards the offspring of their wives. The economic unit consisted of brothers, sisters, sisters' children, and their daughters' children, with marriage playing no significant role in the formation of households.

What is a matrifocal family?

A matrifocal family is a family structure predominantly led by women, typically comprising a woman, her dependent children, and occasionally her mother. These households can be found in a significant number of black families across the West Indies, parts of Central America such as Guyana, and the United States.

How does the Israeli kibbutz system challenge the universality of the family?

The Israeli kibbutz system presents a potential exception to Murdock's claim of the universality of the nuclear family. In kibbutzim settlements, children live in communal dormitories and are raised by designated child caregivers or educators, while parental authority is transferred to the community. Economic cooperation between married couples is minimal, as both partners work for the kibbutz as a whole rather than for their individual family.

How do same-sex couples challenge traditional definitions of family and marriage?

Same-sex couples and their households challenge traditional definitions of family and marriage because they do not align with Murdock's definition, which includes "adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship." These households may consist of two adult females or two adult males who care for children, who may be adopted, conceived through previous heterosexual relationships, or through new reproductive technologies such as sperm donation or surrogate motherhood.