Family Diversity | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Family Diversity

‘Cereal packet image’ of the family whose members love each other, eat together and perform their respective social roles is a farce, but widely popular in advertising.

Some historians, like Michael Anderson, have identified various household types in pre-industrial and industrial times. It is widely believed that in each era, there is one dominant family type, be it nuclear, modified extended, modified elementary, or dispersed extended. This family type is believed to be the core experience of people in that specific era in modern industrial societies. However, recent research has challenged this notion, suggesting that there is actually a multitude of household and family types in modern industrial societies, making the concept of a "typical family" misleading.

The ‘cereal packet image’ of the family

Ann Oakley (1982) described the concept of a "conventional" family, which typically consists of a legally married couple who voluntarily choose to have one or more children (but not too many). This image of a happy nuclear family with two children is often seen in advertising, and is referred to by Leach as the "cereal packet image of the family." This is because many family-sized cereal products are targeted at this type of family structure. It is generally assumed that the male in the family serves as the primary breadwinner, while the wife primarily takes on domestic responsibilities.

The monolithic image of the family

• The concept of a single, unified image of the family has been criticized by American feminist Barrie Thorne. She argues that this image, which idealizes the nuclear family with a breadwinner husband and a full-time wife and mother, is not representative of the true diversity of families. Thorne suggests that focusing on this singular image ignores the societal structures that lead to a variety of family structures.
• Thorne emphasizes that structures related to gender, generation, race, and class lead to a wide range of family experiences. These differences are often overlooked due to the elevation of the nuclear family, motherhood, and the family as a safe haven. She states that the concept of "The Family" distorts the true variety of household forms.
• Thorne points out that households have always been diverse, even during the 1950s and early 1960s when the image of "The Family" was most prominent. By the 1990s, this ideology became even more outdated due to societal changes that led to an increasing variety of family structures.

Households in Britain

• The belief that traditional family images accurately represent reality has been challenged by Robert and Rhona Rapoport (1982). They highlighted that in 1978, only 20% of families were made up of married couples with children and a single breadwinner. The Rapoports discovered that there has been a consistent decrease in the percentage of households in Great Britain consisting of married couples with dependent children, dropping from 38% in 1961 to just 23% in 1998.
• During the same period, there has been a significant increase in the number of single-person households, with the percentage of such households growing from 11% in 1961 to 28% in 1998. In addition, the percentage of households consisting of single-parent families with dependent children more than tripled, increasing from 2% in 1961 to 7% in 1998. The overall number of single-parent households also rose from 6% to 10% during this time. Single-parent families will be explored in greater detail later.

Types of Diversity

The Rapoports' research on family diversity in Britain has revealed a decline in the traditional concept of a family, which consists of married heterosexual couples and their dependent children. They identified various aspects of diversity within the family structures, which can be summarized as follows:

1. Conventional families are no longer the majority, as there is a rise in organizational diversity. This includes variations in family structure, household type, kinship networks, and division of labor within the home. Examples of such diverse families are single-parent families and dual-worker families where both partners work.
2. Reconstituted families have become more prevalent due to increasing rates of divorce and remarriage. These families can take different forms, such as children from previous marriages living together in the new family or living with their original parents separately.
3. Cultural diversity also plays a role in the variety of family forms, as families of different ethnic origins and religious backgrounds may have distinct lifestyles and values.
4. Social class differences can impact family dynamics, with variations in adult relationships and child socialization between middle-class and working-class families.
5. Regional diversity is another factor influencing family forms, as different regions may have characteristic family structures. For example, the affluent southern parts of England, known as the "sun belt," typically have two-parent, upwardly mobile families, while rural areas may have strong kinship networks due to family-based farms.
6. Cohabitation without marriage, or live-in relationships, has become increasingly common as an alternative to traditional marriages.
7. The emergence of gay and lesbian households, where long-term relationships are present, has led many sociologists to consider these households as families.

New Reproductive Technologies

New reproductive technologies have significantly increased the diversity of family structures. The birth of the first "test-tube baby," Louise Brown, in 1978 marked the beginning of in vitro fertilization (IVF), a process that involves fertilizing an egg with sperm in a laboratory and then implanting it into a woman's womb. The woman carrying the baby may or may not be the one who provided the egg.

• Surrogate motherhood is another reproductive technology that involves a woman carrying a fetus created from another woman's egg. This raises questions about the child's parents and the definition of a family. Calhoun argues that this technology disrupts the traditional idea of the reproductive couple being at the center of a family and introduces more choices for family formation.
• Macionis and Plummer illustrate how new reproductive technologies can lead to unconventional family relationships. They cite the case of Arlette Schweitzer, who gave birth to her own grandchildren in 1991 because her daughter was unable to carry a baby. Arlette acted as a surrogate mother and delivered twins, leading to questions about her role as the twins' mother, grandmother, or both. Macionis and Plummer argue that such cases challenge the traditional understanding of kinship terms. They also note that these technologies have been used by lesbian, homosexual, single, and older women.
• In conclusion, new reproductive technologies have expanded the possibilities for creating and expanding families, breaking down biological limits and contributing to the growing diversity of family structures.

A global Trend

• The decline in traditional family structures and the growth of diverse family forms are part of a worldwide trend, as noted by Rhona Rapoport. She cites data indicating a shift towards more diverse family structures in various European countries. For example, the percentage of nuclear family households in Finland decreased from 63.8% in 1950 to 60% in 1980. In Sweden, it dropped from 52.4% in 1960 to 42.6% in 1980, and in East Germany, it fell from 56.7% in 1957 to 48.7% in 1977.
• Rapoport also highlights the significant increase in the proportion of married women with paid employment across Europe. This suggests that the roles of men and women within marriage are evolving, leading to the emergence of new family forms. These findings are generally supported by a study examining family diversity in Europe.

Diversity and European family life

In the late 1980s, the European Co-ordination Centre for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences conducted a cross-cultural study examining family life in 14 European countries. The study, carried out by Katja Boh, aimed to identify trends in the changing family patterns across these nations.

• Although family life varied significantly between countries, Boh's research identified some common trends, such as rising divorce rates, increased cohabitation, and declining birth rates. Despite these similarities, diverse patterns of family life continued to exist across Europe.
• Boh argues that this convergence of diversity is a result of several factors, including greater gender equality in work, increased freedom in choosing partners, and changing views on marriage, love, and sexuality. Additionally, higher marriage instability, alternative living arrangements, and changing parenting styles have contributed to the acceptance of a wider range of family types as normal and legitimate.

The increase in single parenthood

• The rise in single-parent families in Britain has become increasingly prevalent over the past few decades. In 1961, only 2% of the population lived in single-parent households, which increased to 7% by 1998. Furthermore, the percentage of children living in these households also rose from 7% in 1972 to 19% in 1997. Britain has the second-highest rate of single parenthood in Europe, surpassed only by Denmark, with lower rates in countries such as Greece, Portugal, and France. However, this trend has been on the rise since the 1980s in Europe and other advanced industrial countries such as Japan and the USA.
• The increase in single-parent families, particularly those led by lone mothers, is closely related to the rise in divorce rates and births outside marriage. In the past, couples would often marry to legitimate a pregnancy, resulting in unstable marriages and eventually leading to single parenthood after separation or divorce. Nowadays, couples are more likely to cohabit rather than marry, and if their relationship ends, they appear in statistics as single, never-married parents. Some researchers argue that single parenthood is becoming more accepted as a legitimate alternative to other family structures due to increased tolerance of diverse family forms.
• However, the rise in single parenthood may also be attributed to changing relationships between men and women, with women having more opportunities to develop a life outside marriage or long-term cohabitation. Additionally, the decline in the stigma attached to single parenthood, as evidenced by the use of less negative terminology, may also contribute to this increase. This could be due in part to the weakening of religious or community controls over women. Despite this, it is important to note that many single parents do not actively choose this situation, as evidenced by a study of 31 lone mothers, who all aspired to form two-parent households but failed to achieve it due to various factors.

Ethnicity and family diversity

• Ethnicity is a significant factor contributing to family diversity in Britain, as various ethnic groups with distinct cultural backgrounds may introduce unique family structures that differ from the majority population. Statistical evidence indicates that different household types are more prevalent among specific ethnic groups.
• Numerous empirical studies show that immigrants and their descendants have adapted their family lives to British circumstances without drastically changing the foundations of their traditional family relationships. This suggests that the presence of diverse ethnic groups has indeed contributed to the variety of family types found in Britain, as these ethnic minorities have managed to maintain many of the unique aspects of their family lives.
• However, there is also evidence of changes occurring within the families of ethnic minorities, and British culture may have a more significant impact on future generations. Each ethnic group consists of a range of family types influenced by factors such as social class and life stage, which also relates to diversity in white families. As a result, ethnic minority families contribute to family diversity not only by having their own distinct family patterns but also by developing various family structures within each ethnic group.

Robert Chester – the British neo-conventional family

Robert Chester (1985) has strongly criticized the notion that significant transformations are occurring in British family life. He believes that these changes are minor and that the evidence presented by writers such as the Rapoports is misleading. According to Chester, the core aspects of family life have largely stayed the same for the majority of the British population since World War II. He argues that most adults still get married and have children, most children are raised by their biological parents, most households are headed by a married couple, and most marriages last until one partner passes away. Chester does not foresee any major changes in these patterns in the near future.

The ‘neo-conventional family’

• The "neo-conventional family" concept acknowledges that there have been some changes in family dynamics over time, particularly regarding women's involvement in the workforce. Chester, who proposed the idea, admits that many families no longer solely rely on the husband as the breadwinner, as more and more women contribute to household finances through paid employment.
• However, he also points out that a significant portion of women only work for a part of their married lives, often taking on part-time jobs. Many of them choose to stay at home while their children are young, with less than half of married mothers being employed and only 14% of them holding full-time positions. Chester describes the trend as married women temporarily leaving the workforce to raise their children and later returning to (mostly part-time) work as their children grow older.
• While this is a notable shift from the traditional family structure where the husband is the sole provider, Chester argues that it is not a fundamental change. He calls this new family form, where wives participate in the labor market to some extent, the "neo-conventional family." It is quite similar to the conventional family, with the main difference being the increasing number of wives working for at least a portion of their married lives.

Conclusion

The concept of a "typical family" has become increasingly misleading as family diversity has grown in modern industrial societies. Factors such as organizational, cultural, and social class differences, along with new reproductive technologies and global trends, have contributed to this diversification. While some argue that the core aspects of family life have remained relatively stable, it is undeniable that a multitude of household and family types now exists, challenging traditional notions and embracing the evolving dynamics of family structures.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Family Diversity

What is the "cereal packet image" of the family?

The "cereal packet image" of the family refers to the stereotype of a happy nuclear family consisting of a married couple with two children, where the husband serves as the primary breadwinner and the wife primarily takes on domestic responsibilities. This image is often seen in advertising, as many family-sized cereal products are targeted at this type of family structure.

What are some factors contributing to family diversity?

Some factors contributing to family diversity include organizational diversity (variations in family structure and household type), reconstituted families (due to divorce and remarriage), cultural diversity (different ethnic origins and religious backgrounds), social class differences, regional diversity, cohabitation without marriage, and the emergence of gay and lesbian households.

How have new reproductive technologies impacted family diversity?

New reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) and surrogate motherhood, have expanded the possibilities for creating and expanding families, breaking down biological limits, and contributing to the growing diversity of family structures. These technologies have been used by lesbian, homosexual, single, and older women, challenging traditional definitions of kinship and family relationships.

Is the increase in single-parent families a global trend?

Yes, the increase in single-parent families is a global trend, with many European countries, as well as advanced industrial countries such as Japan and the USA, experiencing a rise in single parenthood. This trend is closely related to the rise in divorce rates and births outside marriage, as well as changing relationships between men and women and the decline in the stigma attached to single parenthood.

What is the "neo-conventional family" proposed by Robert Chester?

The "neo-conventional family" is a concept proposed by Robert Chester to describe a modern family structure that is similar to the conventional family, but with the main difference being the increasing number of wives working for at least a portion of their married lives. It acknowledges the changes in family dynamics, particularly women's involvement in the workforce, but suggests that the core aspects of family life have largely stayed the same for the majority of the British population since World War II.