Environment & Ecology: May 2022 Current Affairs | Environment for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Forest Fires

Fires in forests are not unnatural. Small and controlled fires in the form of prescribed burning are very useful and essential for good natural forest development and regeneration. As they keep forest floor free from the natural annual buildup of the litter thereby reducing risk of catastrophic forest fire, improving silvicultural opportunities, increasing forage and habitat opportunities for wildlife, enhancing biodiversity etc.

Losses From Extensive Forest Fires

• Biodiversity change: In the Himalayas, fires have made the situation less favorable for oaks to grow and more favorable for chir pine to grow.
• Reduced soil moisture creates a possibility of forest fire in future.
• Reduce water infiltration due to heat induced chemical and physical changes in upper layer of soil which makes it impervious.
• Enhanced global warming due to destruction of forest Carbon sequestration potential and addition of newer emissions such as carbon monoxide, methane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide that led to global warming and ozone layer depletion. Microclimate change caused by removal of litter and duff, opening of the canopy by killing over storey shrubs and trees and darkening of the soil surface by residual soot and charcoal can increase insulation causing temperature increase.
• Soil erosion: Intense Forest fire always has a direct heating effect on the soil at the depth below 7 to 10 cm. As a result, the soil of the fire affected area loses its water holding capacity and becomes vulnerable for erosion.

• Flooding due to water repellent soils and cover loss give rise to higher chances of floods.

Way Forward

• Recognise forest fires as a disaster type and integrate them into national, sub-national and local disaster management plans: National Plan on Forest Fires was launched by the Government of India in 2018 under the National Afforestation Program. This plan touches upon a wide range of activities, but financial constraints and operational dynamism remains a challenge. Forest fires should be recognised as a disaster type under the NDMA act. The recognition will enhance and strengthen the National Plan on Forest Fires by improving its financial allocation and through the creation of a cadre of trained forest firefighters under the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and State Disaster Response Force (SDRF).
• Develop a forest fire-only alert system: Currently, Forest Survey of India (FSI) and National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) use MODIS and Suomi NPP VIIRS information for near real-time monitoring of forest fires which does not segregate forest fires from other fires such as waste burning and crop burning. Hence, ground validation takes time and the scope for misinformation increases. As a first step, a forest fire ONLY alert system needs to be developed that can provide real-time impact-based alerts.
• Enhance adaptive capacity: Capacity-building initiatives targeted at district administrations and forest-dependent communities can avert the extent of loss and damage due to forest fires. Training on high technology-focused equipment (like drones) and nature-based modules such as creating effective forest fire lines can effectively mitigate the spread of forest fires.
• Provide clean air shelters: The state government/state forest departments (SFDs) should repurpose public buildings like government schools and community halls by fitting them with clean air solutions – like air filters – to create clean air shelters for communities worst impacted by fires and smoke from forest fires.
• Prescribed burning approach: Mitigation of forest fire through fire suppression is only increasing the fuel load of the system, often resulting in out-of-control fires. Prescribed burning unless conducted in checks and balances has the risk of spreading across the forests.
• Engagements of local communities: Local communities may be engaged in the process to ensure livelihood and develop a sense of ownership towards the forest. There should be clear protocol for alarming people living near forest to save lives and livelihood.
• Firefighting action plans must be prepared for each forest range considering the climate, terrain, type of vegetation, availability of water, etc. Drought remediation measures should also be taken into considerations while making these action plans. Creating a bioeconomy through community-engaged creation of functional value chains based on wood, non-wood products, agroforestry, and ecosystem services can help ensure livelihood security as well as to control forest fire.

To read more information on this topic:

• Shankar IAS Summary of Environmental Issues

Heat Waves

Heat Wave 

• A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of India.
• Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in death.

Criteria for Heat Wave

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat Waves:

There are two conditions which need to be satisfied:

• Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions. Following criteria are used to declare heat wave:
  • Based on Departure from Normal
  • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
  • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 6.4°C
• Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
  • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 45°C
  • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature 47°C

Declare heat wave, the above criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

Favourable Conditions for Heat Wave

• Transportation / Prevalence of hot dry air over a region (There should be a region of warm dry air and appropriate flow pattern for transporting hot air over the region).
• Absence of moisture in the upper atmosphere (As the presence of moisture restricts the temperature rise).
• The sky should be cloudless (To allow maximum insulation over the region).
• Large amplitude anti-cyclonic flow over the area.
• Heat waves develop over Northwest India and spread gradually eastwards & southwards but not westwards (since the prevailing winds during the season are westerly to north westerly).

But on some occasions, heat wave may also develop over any region in situ under the favourable conditions.

Impacts of Heat Waves

• Health Impacts
  • The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
  • Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) accompanied by fever below 39 i.e.,102ºF.
  • Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps and sweating.
  • Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40ºC i.e., 104ºF or more along with delirium, seizures or coma. This is a potentially fatal condition.
• Agriculture
  • High temperatures can be damaging to agriculture. Plant growth is negatively impacted by high daytime temperatures and some crops require cool night temperatures.
  • Heat waves also increase the chances of livestock experiencing heat stress, especially when nighttime temperatures remain high, and animals are unable to cool off.
  • Heat-stressed cattle can experience declines in milk production, slower growth, and reduced conception rates.
  • Heat waves can exacerbate droughts and wildfires, which can lead to negative impacts on the agriculture sector.
• Energy
  • High-pressure circulation in the atmosphere acts like a dome or cap, trapping heat at the surface and favoring the formation of a heat wave.
  • A heat dome is caused when atmosphere traps hot ocean air, as if bounded by a lid or cap. They can be linked to climate change. The upper air weather patterns are slow to move referred to by meteorologists as an Omega block.
  • In still, dry summer conditions, a mass of warm air builds up. The high pressure from the Earth's atmosphere pushes the warm air down. The air is compressed, and as its net heat is now in a smaller volume, so it must get hotter. As the warm air attempts to rise, the high pressure above it forces it down, to get hotter, and its pressure grows higher.
  • The high pressure acts as if a dome, causing everything below it to get hotter and hotter. 

Resilience Strategies for Extreme Heat

• Identifying vulnerable populations and creating heat preparedness plans with all residents in mind, that may include steps like opening cooling centers during periods of extreme heat and adopting workplace heat stress standards.
• Installing cool and green roofs and cool pavement to reduce the urban heat island effect.
• Planting trees to provide shade and to cool the air through evapotranspiration.
• Pursuing energy efficiency to reduce demand on the electricity grid, especially during heat waves. 

IMD has changed its definition of the LPA, which is an indication of the average rainfall over a 50-year interval and, as per the norms of the World Meteorological Organization to which India is a signatory, should be updated every 10 years. For myriad reasons, the IMD stuck with an LPA number of 89 cm (the average monsoon rain from 1951-2000) until 2018, when it was updated to 88 cm (to reflect the average from 1961-2010). And now, to count for the 1971-2020 interval, the number is 87 cm. While on the surface, it might look like India is losing just a centimetre of rainfall every decade, it must be remembered that this conceals wide shifts in rainfall when computed at the State and district levels as the monsoon rain is highly uneven. The IMD explains the loss of a centimetre every decade as part of a natural cycle of the monsoon where 30 years of less rain, or a ‘dry’ epoch, is followed by 30 years of a ‘wet epoch’. India began a dry epoch in the 1970-80 decade, the IMD says; it is now in a neutral phase and will enter a wet epoch in the decade, 2030-2040. The IMD has presented research over the years documenting the changes in the weather and rainfall in recent years down to sub-district levels, and has said that global warming, in its tendency to heat the oceans, has certainly had a role to play. Much like the update to the average, the IMD must update some processes and lay stress on shorter forecasts, a month or a fortnight ahead, rather than maintain anachronistic traditions of long-range forecasts that are neither accurate nor useful.

Onset & Advance of Monsoon 

The guidelines to be followed for declaring the onset of monsoon over Kerala and its further advance over the country are enlisted below:
a) Rainfall
If after 10th May, 60% of the available 14 stations enlisted*, viz. Minicoy, Amini, Thiruvananthapuram, Punalur, Kollam, Allapuzha, Kottayam, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur, Kudulu and Mangalore report rainfall of 2.5 mm or more for two consecutive days, the onset over Kerala be declared on the 2nd day, provided the following criteria are also in concurrence.
b) Wind field
Depth of westerlies should be maintained upto 600 hPa, in the box equator to Lat. 10ºN and Long. 55ºE to 80ºE. The zonal wind speed over the area bounded by Lat. 5-10ºN, Long. 70-80ºE should be of the order of 15 – 20 Kts. at 925 hPa. 

The source of data can be RSMC wind analysis/satellite derived winds.
c) Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) 
INSAT derived OLR value should be below 200 wm^-2 in the box confined by Lat. 5-10ºN and Long. 70-75ºE. 

Northern Limit of Monsoon (NLM)
Southwest monsoon normally sets in over Kerala around 1st June. It advances northwards, usually in surges, and covers the entire country around 15th July. 

The NLM is the northern most limit of monsoon upto which it has advanced on any given day.

Withdrawal of SW Monsoon 
a) Withdrawal from extreme north-western parts of the country is not attempted before 1st September.

b) After 1st September: The following major synoptic features are considered for the first withdrawal from the western parts of NW India. 

• Cessation of rainfall activity over the area for continuous 5 days. 
• Establishment of anticyclone in the lower troposphere (850 hPa and below) 
• Considerable reduction in moisture content as inferred from satellite water vapour imageries and tephigrams. 

Further Withdrawal From the Country

Further withdrawal from the country is declared, keeping the spatial continuity, reduction in moisture as seen in the water vapour imageries and prevalence of dry weather for 5 days. Withdrawal of SW monsoon is from the southern peninsula and hence from the entire country only after 1st October, when the circulation pattern indicates a change over from the south-westerly wind regime. 

Human waste disposal in innocuous form is an ever growing problem leading to aesthetic nuisance, threat of organic pollution & several infectious diseases in epidemic proportions due to contamination of ground water and drinking water resources in highly populated and developing countries, like India. Less than 30% of Indians have access to the toilets. In rural areas about 10% of houses have toilets and rest of the people go to open defecation. Population in the cities although have better access to the toilets but only to the tune of ~70%.

Untreated waste is responsible for several diseases like, dysentery, diarrhoea, amoebiasis, viral hepatitis, cholera, typhoid etc. taking the life of lakhs of children annually. Bio decomposers degrade and converts the human waste into usable water and gasses in an eco-friendly manner. The generated gas can be utilized for energy/cooking and water for irrigation purposes. The process involves the bacteria which feed upon the faecal matter inside the tank, through anaerobic process which finally degrades the matter and releases methane gas that can be used for cooking, along with the treated water. 

Salient Features

• No bad smell in toilets from the tanks
• Faecal matter in the tank not visible
• No infestation of cockroaches & flies
• No clogging of digester
• Effluent is free from off odour and solid waste
• Reduction in pathogens by 99%
• Reduction in organic matter by 90%
• No maintenance required
• No requirement of adding bacteria/ enzyme
• No need of removal of solid waste
• Use of phenyl is permitted upto 84 ppm

Available Models

1. Microbial inoculum (cold-active)
   • Isolated, screened, selected and enriched through acclimatization and bio-augmentation
   • Can withstand freezing and thawing
   • Ability to inactivate the intestinal pathogens
2. High altitude model
   • Material: Metal/FRP of cylindrical shape
   • Works at low temperature as well as high temperature
3. Glacier model
   • Material: Metal/FRP of cylindrical shape
   • Provided with insulation and heating arrangement with solar system
4. Plain area model
   • Material: Material: FRP/MS
   • Suitable for existing/independent toilet
   • Also available with top mounted toilets
   • Can be installed for single house/apartment/society/ community
5. Island model
   • Material: FRP
   • Design involves longer path for treatment
   • Suitable for high water usages and areas with high water table
6. Biotank model
   • Low cost, simple design for onsite construction
   • Material: Brick / RCC structure/ FRP
   • REED BED SYSTEM (optional) improves effluent quality & can also be used to treat kitchen and bathroom wastewater
   • Final effluent safe and can be used for recycling or irrigation
   • Can be installed for single house/ apartment/society /community

To read more information on this topic:

• Shankar IAS Summary of Environmental Issues and Heal 

• Environmental Issues and Health Effects - 1

• Environmental Issues and Health Effects - 2

Dam Safety Act, 2021

Need for a Legislation for Dam Safety

• Dams are artificial barriers on rivers which store water and help in irrigation, power generation, flood moderation, and water supply.
• Dams with a height of more than 15 metres or between 10 and 15 metres that meet certain extra design criteria are referred to as huge dams in India. India has 5,745 big dams as of June 2019. (Includes dams under construction).
• Of these, 5,675 large dams are operated by states, 40 by central public sector undertakings, and five by private agencies. Over 75% of these dams are more than 20 years old and about 220 dams are more than 100 years old.2, Most of these large dams are in Maharashtra (2394), Madhya Pradesh (906), and Gujarat (632).
• As a large amount of water may be stored in a dam’s reservoir, its failure can cause large scale damage to life and property. Therefore, monitoring dam safety is essential for following reasons:
  • Deteriorating conditions: As dams get older, their design and hydrology fall out of step with current knowledge and practises. Dams' water holding capacity is being lowered because of massive siltation.
  • Dependent on Dam Managers: There is no proper system and understanding in terms of the downstream water requirement.
  • Dam surroundings: Dam safety is dependent upon other factors such as landscape, land-use change, patterns of rainfall, structural features, etc.
  • Failures: In the lack of a competent dam safety framework, flaws in the investigation, design, building, operation, and maintenance of dams may occur, resulting in serious events and, in some cases, dam failure.

Current Organizational Structure

• Central Dam Safety Organisation, under the Central Water Commission (CWC), provides technical assistance to dam owners, and maintains data on dams.
• National Committee on Dam Safety devises dam safety policies and regulations.
• Currently, 18 states and four dam owning organisations have their own Dam Safety Organisations.
• CWC provides that each dam owner should conduct pre and post monsoon inspections (covering site conditions, dam operations) every year.

However, as per a CAG report on flood forecasting, from 2008 to 2016, of the 17 states studied, only two had carried out such inspections.

Key Features of the Act

• Act applies to all specified dams in the country. 
  • These are dams with:
    (i) height more than 15 metres, or
    (ii) height between 10 metres to 15 metres and satisfying certain additional design conditions such as, reservoir capacity of at least one million cubic meter, and length of top of the dam at least 500 metres.
• Obligation of dam owners
  • Dam owners will be responsible for the safe construction, operation, maintenance and supervision of a dam. They must provide a dam safety unit in each dam.
  • This unit will inspect the dams:
    (i) Before and after monsoon season
    (ii) During and after every earthquake, flood, calamity, or any sign of distress.
  • Functions of dam owners include:
    (i) Preparing an emergency action plan
    (ii) Conducting risk assessment studies at specified regular intervals
    (iii) Preparing a comprehensive dam safety evaluation through a panel of experts.
• Dam safety authorities
  • The Act provides for dam safety regulatory and monitoring authorities at the national and state level. The functions of the national bodies and the State Committees on Dam Safety have been provided in Schedules to the Act. The central government can amend these Schedules through a notification.
• At the national level, it constitutes
  • The National Committee on Dam Safety, whose functions include evolving policies and recommending regulations regarding dam safety, 
  • The National Dam Safety Authority, whose functions include implementing policies of the National Committee, and resolving matters between State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), or between a SDSO and any dam owner in that state.
  • The central government may notify the qualifications, and functions of the officers of the National Dam Safety Authority.
• At the state level, it constitutes the
  • State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), whose functions include keeping perpetual surveillance, inspecting, and monitoring dams.
  • State Committee on Dam Safety which will supervise state dam rehabilitation programs,review the work of the SDSO, and review the progress on measures recommended in relation to dam safety, among others. State governments may notify the qualifications, and functions of officers of the State Dam Safety Organisations.
  • They may also notify dam safety measures to be undertaken by owners of non-specified dams.
• Offences and penalties
  • Anyone obstructing a person in the discharge of his functions under the Act or refusing to comply with directions may be imprisoned for a year. In case of loss of life, the person may be imprisoned for two years.

Issues With the Legislation

• Jurisdiction of Parliament to frame a law on intra-state river dams
  • The Act applies to all specified dams in the country. These are dams with: Height more than 15 metres, Height between 10 to 15 metres, subject to certain design and structural conditions. This includes dams on both inter and intrastate rivers. The question is whether Parliament has the authority to frame a law on intra-state dams.
  • As per Entry 17 of the State List, states can make laws on water supply, irrigation and canals, drainage and embankments, water storage and waterpower, subject to Entry 56 of the Union List. Entry 56 of the Union List allows Parliament to make laws on the regulation of inter-state rivers and river valleys if it declares such regulation to be expedient in public interest.
  • The Act declares it expedient in public interest for the Union to regulate on a uniform dam safety procedure for all specified dams. However, given Entry 17, it is unclear how Parliament would have the authority to frame a law for dams on rivers where the river and its valley are entirely within a state.
• Functions of authorities may be changed through notification
  • The functions of the National Committee on Dam Safety, the National Dam Safety Authority, and the State Committee on Dam Safety are provided in Schedules to the Act.
  • Their functions include: resolving issues between State Dam Safety Organisations (SDSOs), or between a SDSO and a dam owner, assessing potential impact of dam failure and coordinating mitigation measures with affected states, supervising dam rehabilitation programmes.
• These Schedules can be amended through notification. This implies that the core functions of these bodies can be changed by the government through notification without prior amendment of the Act by Parliament. The question is whether the Act should require an amendment by Parliament to change the core functions of such bodies. 
• In various laws such as the Aadhaar Act, 2016, and the National Medical Commission Act, 2019, the functions of the regulatory body are specified in the Act with a provision to expand the functions through notification. Note that the functions mentioned in these Acts cannot be curtailed except through an Amendment Act passed by Parliament. In the 2010 Act, functions of all authorities were specified in the Act.

To read more information on this topic:

• Renewable Energy - 1