Imperialism and Colonialism-I - UPSC PDF Download

Colonialism and Imperialism

History of Colonialism

• The end of the 15th century marked a significant turning point in global history, as the Age of Discovery and the decline of feudalism led to the rise of colonialism. This period was characterized by increased trade, which generated monetary profits and created a demand for raw materials. To meet these needs, European powers developed advanced navigational tools such as the compass, astrolabe, and maps, as well as improved ship designs, which facilitated exploration and colonization.
• Colonialism in Asia, Africa, and America was driven by three primary motivations: the pursuit of gold (wealth), glory (power and prestige), and God (religious expansion). The policy of mercantile capitalism was a key component of colonialism, as it involved attacking merchant vessels from rival kingdoms, blocking trade routes, establishing colonies, implementing trade barriers, monopolizing trade with the colonies, and securing exclusive trading rights with newly discovered lands in order to dominate global commerce.
• In Asia, the primary goal of colonialism was to generate trade profits, while the slave trade was the main focus in Africa. African colonization began early, but it was largely confined to coastal regions due to the geographical obstacles that hindered inland expansion. Overall, the history of colonialism is marked by the pursuit of wealth, power, and religious influence, as well as the development of new technologies and strategies to achieve these aims.
• The initiation of the slave trade can be attributed to Portugal, as their plantation workers struggled to cope with the hot and humid climate of Brazil. To overcome this issue, Africans were brought in to work as slaves on these plantations, while Native Americans served as serfs on the colonists' estates.
• The demand for raw materials surged after the Industrial Revolution in 1750, leading to an increased need for workers in the colonies. As a result, the number of Africans involved in the slave trade also grew significantly.
• This trade system became known as the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and the Triangular Slave Trade, as it connected three major regions: America, Africa, and Europe.

Why African slaves preferred

• African slaves were often preferred over Native Americans and white prisoners for several reasons. Firstly, Native Americans had an advantage in that they were familiar with the local territories and could easily escape and hide in the jungles. They also had knowledge of how to survive on local plants and animals. However, they were more susceptible to European diseases, which led to a high mortality rate among them in plantations.
• On the other hand, white prisoners posed a different challenge, as they could also escape and blend in with the white population in the colonies, making it difficult to recapture them.
• Slavery eventually came to an end in various parts of the world at different times. In France, it was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789. The British passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833, which put an end to slavery in all of its colonies. In the United States, slavery was banned after the Civil War, which took place between 1861 and 1865.

Laissez-faire (19th century)

• Less domination of State in the economic sphere (as during Mercantile Capitalism) & thus a free market economy
• It was a free market economy only in the domestic economy
•  Businessman should be free to look after his own interests. Only the unwritten law of supply & demand should determine the size of his profits. The same unwritten law would determine the fate of the worker, whether he had a job, what would be his working conditions and salary.

Difference between Colonialism and Imperialism 

• Colianialism begins in 16th centuary from North America & Latin America, whereas Imperialism started from 19th centuary from Africa, Asia & Pacific
• Colonialism is part of Imperialism and Imperialism is a natural extension of Colonialism
• Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory via militarism or a threat only
• Colonialism aims for extraction of economic benefits from the colony while Imperialism includes political control
• Colonialism may be done by companies who secure special trading privileges & setup trading posts (making colonies dependent), while Imperialism is done by the state through government diplomacy to acquire territories, protectorates & spheres of influence to promote industrial trade and investments.

Neo-Imperialism

• Events after the Industrial Revolution in colonial empire building are termed as New Imperialism.
• The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial Revolution in Europe, was the race component.
• Political & economic domination or exploitation of non-industrialized nations by the industrialized nations → achieved by military conquer or by colonizing the foreign territory (Neo Imperialism → a result of Industrial Capitalism)
• Another strategy during Neo-Imperialism was of capturing ports of call i.e. capture those places where ships could replenish supply of coal and water 

Factors responsible for Neo imperialism

• Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain and later spread to the rest of Europe, the United States, and Japan, led to an increase in production and lower wages for workers. This resulted in "underconsumption" in the domestic market, as there was more supply than demand. Consequently, capitalist nations had to find new markets and buyers to sell their products, leading to the expansion of their influence and control in other regions.
• Rise of Nationalism: Nationalism led to increased competition among nations for economic and military supremacy. Countries sought to expand their territories and resources to assert their national identity and strength.
• Political Distraction: Rulers used imperialism as a means to divert the public's attention away from domestic issues and the growing influence of democratic ideas. By focusing on national glory and expansion, rulers could maintain political control at home.
• Limited Geographical Space: In the 19th century, most of the world had already been colonized or influenced by powerful nations. The only remaining unclaimed territories were the interior lands of Africa. This scarcity of available land intensified competition among nations and increased the importance of maintaining political control in existing colonies.
• Cultural and Religious Motivations: Christian missionaries sought to spread Christianity to new regions, while the notion of the "White Man's burden" justified the spread of supposedly superior Western civilization to "backward" colonies.

As a result of these factors, major powers could only grow at each other's expense, making political control over colonies essential for maintaining economic control. This led to the rise of state power and the replacement of trading companies, like the East India Company, with government control. The need for military presence to secure political control in colonies became a defining feature of Neo-imperialism.

Colonialism in Africa (19th century)
Difficult terrains, non-navigable rivers & other such geographical features ensured that colonialism had a late entry in mainland Africa and was restricted for a long time to Coastal Africa.

• King Leopold II of Belgium was a significant patron of explorers and was the first European monarch to establish a colony in Central Africa. In 1876, he gained control over Congo, managing it as his private colony. By 1914, the whole of Africa had been divided among various European powers, including Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Portugal. The only exceptions were Abyssinia (where Italian forces were defeated by nationalists in the Battle of Adowa) and Liberia.
• There were numerous disputes among the European powers over territory and trading rights in Africa. The overlapping claims of the colonists resulted in the Berlin Conference in 1884-85. This conference was called to resolve issues related to West and Central Africa and led to the demarcation of spheres of influence for each colonial power on the continent. Additionally, the Niger and Congo rivers were declared open for ships from all signatory nations.
• Egypt held particular importance for the British due to the presence of the Suez Canal, which offered a shorter sea route to their Asian colonies, particularly India. The canal was overseen by a company with shareholdings from both France and the Governor of Egypt. During the 19th century, Egypt faced financial difficulties, prompting it to sell its shareholding in the Suez Canal to the British in 1875.

Impact of Colonialism on Africa

• White settlers became elites and exploited the Black natives
• Slavery
• Mass killings by Colonial powers
• Policy of Divide and Rule created problems after independence
• Extreme neglect of Education and Health
• Economic development hurt

European settlers, such as the Boers in South Africa, gained wealth and power in Africa by controlling the government and denying Africans any political rights. In nearly every colony, African lands were seized for cultivation and mining, with the local population forced into slavery. The race thesis was used as an institutional tool to deny Africans their rights during Apartheid in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

• Many Africans lost their lives at the hands of European military forces while resisting land confiscation, enslavement, and unfavorable treaties imposed by the Europeans. Entire villages were destroyed if their inhabitants did not comply with the colonists' demands.
• In the Belgian Congo, one of the first modern genocides occurred between 1876 and 1908, with approximately 10 million Africans killed under the rule of Belgian King Leopold II.
• The Scramble for Africa divided the continent into colonies with arbitrary borders that disregarded geographical continuity or cultural unity. This led to colonies containing multiple tribes with distinct cultures, who did not consider themselves part of a single nation. Moreover, colonists employed a divide and rule strategy, favoring one tribe over others and fostering hostility among tribal groups.
• After gaining independence, many African countries experienced ongoing tribal violence, with the 1994 Rwandan genocide being a prime example. The lack of national unity continues to plague African nations, making it difficult to establish functional democracies.
• Upon gaining independence, African nations faced low enrollment rates in primary, secondary, and higher education, widespread illiteracy, and poverty. Additionally, there were no Africans in officer-level positions in the military. This led to inefficient governance and the eventual collapse of democratic regimes. The inability of elected governments to achieve developmental goals made them reliant on aid from developed countries, resulting in neocolonialism.
• The health sector was also severely neglected during colonial rule, with colonies frequently experiencing epidemics due to their equatorial climate. Today, HIV/AIDS is most prevalent in Africa, making it the primary focus for the World Health Organization and various NGOs.
• These factors hindered economic development and prevented the growth of indigenous entrepreneurship. Africans did not receive fair market prices for their mineral resources, which were exported out of the continent. Furthermore, colonists ensured that no local industries developed, maintaining Africa's role as an exporter of raw materials and an importer of finished goods produced in European factories.

Conclusion

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Imperialism and Colonialism-I

What were the main objectives of colonialism in Asia, Africa, and America?

The main objectives of colonialism in Asia were trade profit, while in Africa, it was primarily the slave trade. In America, the objectives were focused on gold, glory, and spreading Christianity.

Why were African slaves preferred over Native Americans and white prisoners in the colonies?

African slaves were preferred because Native Americans could easily escape and hide in jungles, as they were familiar with the territories and knew how to survive on local plants and animals. Native Americans also lacked immunity to European diseases and died easily in plantations. White prisoners could escape and blend in with the white town-folks in the colony.

What is the difference between colonialism and imperialism?

Colonialism begins in the 16th century from North America and Latin America, whereas imperialism started from the 19th century from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. Colonialism is part of imperialism, and imperialism is a natural extension of colonialism. Imperialism has the basic feature of political acquisition of a foreign territory via militarism or a threat only, while colonialism aims for extraction of economic benefits from the colony.

What were some of the factors responsible for Neo-imperialism?

Factors responsible for Neo-imperialism include the Industrial Revolution, the rise of nationalism, a sound economy, national glory, aspirations of Christian missionaries to spread Christianity, and the notion of the White Man's burden to spread superior civilization in the backward colonies.

What were some impacts of colonialism on Africa?

Colonialism in Africa led to white settlers becoming elites and exploiting the Black natives, slavery, mass killings by colonial powers, the policy of divide and rule creating problems after independence, extreme neglect of education and health, and economic development being hurt.