Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Other Religions on Tribal Societies | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

• INDIA is the home of the followers of all the major religions of the world. This religious pluralism has added to the rich and colourful mosaic of cultural pluralism. Tribal India too, is not a monololith in terms of religious following.
• THOUGH the overwhelming majority of tribal population still maintains it’s exclusive beliefs and practices, more than ninety per cent of them are oriented towards Hinduism and passing through different stages of Hinduisation. More than 95% of tribal populations of western India (Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra), southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), middle India (Madhya Pradesh), eastern India (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal) are Hinduized, while other Hinduized tribal populations are scattered all over the country. 
• On a rough estimate around 5% of the tribal population are adherents of Christianity and are largely concentrated in Assam Meghalya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. In astray pockets Christianized tribal populations are also found in Kerala, Andamn & Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, As for as Islam and Budhism are concerned, followers of these faiths are around half a per cent (0.21% to 0.89%) each of total tribal population of India. Other religious faiths hardly figure in tribal India and their followers may be there in insignificant and inconsiderable numbers. 
• The Siddi of Gujarat, Gujjars of the north-western Himalayan regions, Bakrewal of Jammu & Kashmir some hills Kotis and Dhankasi of Rajasthan are the examples of tribes. Almost the entire tribal population of Lakshdweep is Muslim and this is the only place where they have any significant presence. The impact of Budhism may be seen on the Bhots of north-west Himalaya, the Bhutias, Lepchas, Chakmas and Nagas of the north-east Himalayan region and some of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh.

Hinduism and Tribes

• EXCEPT some of the relatively geographically isolated tribes the social organizations, and cultures of almost all the tribes of India exhibit the impact of Hinduism. Establishment of British rule hastened the process of culture contact yvithp the outside world as a consequence of increased communication. Many of the tribal areas hitherto closed were thrown open. The so called iron curtain over the tribal areas was removed, But this is also significant that despite the adoption of many values of Hinduism, Budhism, Islam and Christianity the distinctive features of tribalism and tribal ethos remained.
• The increased culture contact between the tribal societies and the outside world has. been largely in the form of peasantization. When any tribal , society comes into contact with the neighbouring Hindu peasantry (as has been the case with most of the tribes) it; not only learr.s the art of cultivation but also adopts popular, and local Hindu beliefs and practices in this process of peasantization. Even otherwise except the tribes' of north-eastern region, Bay. of Bengal and some other isolated areas the tribes though mariginally have been a part of the culture process of Indian civilization. Their references in the great epics, of RamayariU and Mahabharat and the presence of the local versions of Hindu pantheon and mythology in many tribal societies bear testimony to this fact. More than two dozen versions of Rama Katha} among many tribes has been indicative of the forces of Hinduization influencing the tribal societies in a variety of ways,
• EVEN otherwise in most, of the cases the adoption of Hindu beliefs and values has been quite, a smooth process without any element of planned missionary activity. Major religions such as Christianity and Islam have fixed dogmas and their adoption simply means that a tribe has to give up it’s tribal values, rituals and total cultural ethos. It is like giving, up one’s past ,and enter into a new world. In contrast Hinduisation seems quite smooth and,  compatible to the, local tribal cultures. A tribe can continue with many of its values and beliefs and at the same time-adopt some new ones such.as a new god or deity. This has been the core of tribe-caste continuum in Indian society. A number of tribal communities have been transforming themselves into caste and become sufficiently. Hinduized to be described as-Hindus but they still do not maintpin social contact with the higher castes. Tribes of central India such as Gonds, Bhils, Bhumij etc. may be fitted into this category.
• BUT there may, be yet another category or tribes who has been totally assimilated with the Hindu society. “This is the level where a tribe has taken the form of caste (specially of scheduled castes), have adopted the but have, retained several elements of tribal values, and ethos. Here Religion and magic have assimilated into each other and the forms of gotra is more totemistic than vedic” (GS Bhatt, 1963). Here we come across not castes but ‘tribe castes’. This is the stage where the tribe is gradually transformed into castes. This is the meeting point of Hinduism and tribalism.
• SURAJIT SINHA (1962) on the basis of historical and ethnographic studies of the Bhumij puts forward the concept of "tribal-Rajput continuum”, He speaks-of the diffusion of the Rajput model among the tribals of central India: like the Bhumij, the Munda, and the Gond and their changing self-image and identity accordingly. Way back Griffiths (1946), while speaking about the process of Hinduization of Kol Tribes (of U.P. & M.P.) expresses the view that they are apparently forming miniature caste qystem within the tribe, modelled some where after the Hindu caste system.
• RECENT ethnographic studies of tribes of northern, western and middle India have left little doubt that many of them have become Hinduized to the extent that they have been assimilated with different castes, at different levels in the caste system . The Tharu (SK.Srivastava, 1958) and the Khasa (D.N.Majumdar, 1962) have largely succeeded in getting themselves accepted as Kshatriya. Moreover, the process of Kshatriyization has been the most popular form of Sanskritization in the Indian society. Sachchidanand(1964) gives an elaborate account of Hinduization among the Oraon and the role of Tana Bhagat Movement in the transformation of the Oraon society.
• AS A result of the impact of Hinduism and culture contact with the Hindus the tribes adopted Hindu customs, traditions, beliefs, gods and goddesses, festivals and rituals and new taboos. In several cases they had to undergo some social disabilities, had to give up beef eating and drinking. G.S. Bhatt(ibid) describing the contribution of the Brahmins in this transformation tells us that the Brahmins have diffused and propagated Hinduism through two ways. On the one hand they offered their services to the tribals, introduced Hindu beliefs and practices to them and on the basis of mythological evidences justified and legitimized their claim to a caste.
  The Brahmins propagated the view that the genesis of every tribe is caste and they supported their assertion through evidences from the Purana and Mahabharat. If any tribe or caste had a low social status; they expressed the view that they are of Kshatriya lineage and their present plight was the result of their ignoring vedic rituals and taboos. Thus they rekindled the hope among the tribal communities that they could still regain their past glory and retrieve the lost ground in terms of social Status by ‘readopting’ and reviving the lost cultural elements.
  One of the popular mythological stories among several sub-tribes of the Bhils is a case in point. The general condition of Bhils has been and still very bad. Steeped in poverty and exploitation many of them have taken to crimes and criminal activities like theft, gambling, dacoity etc. as a way of life. They believe that Parvati was a Bhil and when they demanded bride price from Shiva for their marriage Shiva refused on the ground that he was a pauper and unconcerned with accumulation of wealth. In order to get the money, they killed Nandi, Shiva’s bullock because they had heard that Nandi's shoulders contained lot of precious pearls. Consequently, they were cursed to lead a life of poverty and hardship but at the same time Mahadev gave them a Vardaan that if they resorted to theft to earn their livlihood, it would invite no sin or curse. That is why some sub-tribes of Bhils consider them as thieves of Mahadev.
• ONE of the ’negative’ features of the impact of Hinduism on tribes is the replacement of simple tribal rituals by highly complicated and cumbersome Hindu rituals requiring money and the services of a priest. Child marriage has never been a feature of tribes. The youth dormitories have declined and it has given rise to tensions. The tribals are losing faith in their religio-magical beliefs and practices but it has not been replaced by any new basis of faith. Wherever pre-martial and extra-marital sex-relations were socially sanctioned the outsiders have taken advantage of this permissiveness and it has resulted in the ruthless exploitation of the tribals. As long as these relations were confined within the domain of the respective tribal communities these were not social problems.
  Today it has become responsible for their moral degeneration leading to prostitution. The practice of bride wealth has been replaced among many tribes by the dowry system and even if it remains it is being demanded in cash with inflated amounts leading to their indebtedness. Among several tribes the bride wealth has assumed the dangerous proportions of dowry with the result that a number of eligible girls from Chotanagpur region are forced to remain spinsters if no prospective bridegroom could manage high amounts of bride-price.
• WHEREVER the tribes have adopted Hinduism freely, unhindered and according to their own genious it has given rise to a new sociocultural system based on the amalgamation of Hinduism and tribalism, which is Hindu as well as tribal. The Rajvanshi of Bengal, on the one hand, have reached the level of a caste society by adopting Hinduism, on the other hand they have retained their traditional social organization. All the Rajvanshi claim to belong to the same gotra (Kashyap) but practice gotra endogamy which is not sanctioned in Hinduism. The Lambadi of south India take the services of a Brahmin priest in marriage rituals. Earlier they did not marry with mother s brother’s daughter or father’s sister’s daughter but now they have taken to this practice because several Hindu castes follow this practice. The Gonds, Bhils and several tribes around Chotanagpur region have also dopted some other practices prevalent among the local Hindus.
• ANOTHER fact that deserves mention seems to be quite significant, Unfortunately the first representatives of Hinduism and the Hindu in the] tribal areas were the exploiters-money lenders, traders, contractors and officials. The tribals hate them but not the Hindus or Hinduism. Perhaps the sages sadkiis, Mahatma, Sanyasis were too benign and helpful whose roles convinced the tribals that the Hinduism haid nothing to do with their exploitation.

Budhism, Islam & Christianity

• THE impact of popular Hinduism and the process of Hinduization have been so pervading over tribal India that the role of other religious ideologies and religious systems seems to be marginal. However , as the impact of Budhism, Islam and Christianity is concerned the roles of Budhism and Islam is seen as marginal and not very significant as compared to Christianity. Even otherwise Islam and Christianity may never be. very popular among the tribes because adopting either of these means severing one’s ties from the past. Being based on certain fixed dogmas they demand total rejection of many of the tribal beliefs and practices so dear to the tribal people whereas adopting Hinduism does not pose any such dilemma. Being highly flexible and free from fixed dogmas the tribal could always adopt Hindu beliefs and practices even partially as per their preferences and compatibility.
• AS FOR AS Budhism is concerned only some tribals came under it s impact. These are mainly Shots of north-west Himalaya and the Bhutias, Lepchas, Chakmas arid Nagas of the north-east Himalyan region. Some tribal communities of Arunachal Pradesh have also come under the impact of Budhism and the tribal population of Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir) have also been adherents of Budhism for quite some time.
• AN important fact to be noted here is that perhaps no tribal community has adopted a new faith in toto. In every such tribe the converted and the non-converted members live together. If we take up the case of Arunachal Pradesh we find that the tribal population can be divided into Budhists and those who continue to abide by their beliefs in spirits. The tribes of Western Arunachal Pradesh inhabiting the high hills of Kamang and Subansiri and Siang districts are the followers of Mahayana or Tibetan Budhism.
  The Khamti inhabiting the foothills of Lohit district follow Hinayana version of Budhism. Those who have taken to Budhism maintain a gompa a very sacred place where the images of Budha are installed and the holy books are kept. One or more sacred specialists known as Lama are attached to a gompa. Almost every Khampti and Singpho village has a monastry locally, known as Bapuchang. The Singophos living as neighbours of the Khamtis have followed them and the majority of them have accepted Hinayana Budhism. Commenting on the general tribal situation in Arunachal Pradesh, Haimendorf (1983) says that “Unlike the Christian converts among the Nishis those Khovas who are attracted by Budhism do not opt out of the social life of their community and continue to participate in the traditional tribal rituals.
  In The some way the Sherdukpens combine their adherence to Mahayana Budhism with the communal worship of tribal deities whose cult lies in the hands of priests entirely distinct from the lamas incharge of the larges gompa furnished and decorated in the style of Tibetan gompa. Among the Monpas too elements of the ancient Bon religion coexist with the dominant Budhist faith and the parallel practice of both religions within conflicts comparable to those which threaten to destroy the social fabric of Nishis affected by religious siralries. This shows that even the adoption of Budhism could not cut through the traditional beliefs and practices. Though Budhism is gradually penetrating their society in the realm of ethics and social organization but the local little traditions are too deeply embedded to be given up easily.
• AS FOR AS Islam is concerned it could never penetrate into the tribal regions mainly because of it’s highly dogmatic nature and lack of patronage from the Muslim rulers. It hardly ever enjoyed the official or imperial patronage because the Muslim rulers were not missionaries but largely pursued their imperial and political objectives. Hence, it was left to safi saints and and preachers to spread it. That is why we find that it has had marginal impact on tribal regions. The Siddis of Gujarat, a section of Gujjars of the north-western Himalyan. region and sections of the Bhils, Dhankasi and the Kotis of Rajasthan have embraced Islam. Some small, pastoral communities such, as Gaddi and Bakriwal of Jammu, and Kashmir have also adopted Islam largely because of the highly benign role of the sufi saints. Lakshdweep is the only example where wholesale conversion to Islam, has taken place but even then the tribal population of India which has adopted Islam still remains less than one percent.
• THE tribal population of Lakshdweep consists of seven Muslim tribal communities namely, Koya, Malmi, Melacheri, Manikfan, Thakrufan, Thakru and Reveri. Recently as part of People of India Project Lakshdweep society has been studied thoroughly and we have latest ethnographic data about them. K.S. Singh (PIP, 1993) tells us that it is by now well established that Islam came to the Arabian Sea Islands from Southern Arabia and carried it’s own idioms and structures. The Islamic structure of the Lakshdweep Islands was also part of the South Indian Muslim society. However, it seems that Islam catrie to the Islands from the Malabar coast.
  The location of the mausoleum of the venerable saint Ubaidullah at Androth is significant because this Island is closest to the coast. Not only the Arabic words assimilated into Malayalam but the Arabic script was also used for the Malayalam language.  The matrilineal descent household unit is known as tarawad. The institution of matriliny that exists in Lakshdweep has been well investigated, particularly in the context of Islam (Leela Dube & Kutty : Matriliny in Islam) and other studies. The scholars have reported the decline of the matrilineal groups and matrilineal ideology as a result of the ideology and practice of Islam which, as a religion born in Semitic ambience, upheld patrilineal norms and paternal authority.
• THERE has been a progressive Islamization of the life cycle rituals. For example, puberty rites for the girls similar to those of the Nair have been given up because they were considered repugnant to Islam. The father has come to assume a new responsibility. Kinship terminology also indicates the influence of Islam. One aspect of Islamization is the rise of new religious fervour seen in the observance of festivals such as Prophet Mohammad’s birthday. Practices in conformity with the Shariat are insisted upon. Old rituals are disappearing. Folk dances are on the decline though the Mopilla folk song cassettes are very popular. Islamic Personal Laws prevail. Crosscousin marriages are now preferential marriage type among all the seven groups. Women enjoy high status and have powerful say in the decision making process.
• AMONG the entire population Islamic Great Traditions are paramount but the local little Traditions of pre-conversion times are still popular. This is not the case only with the people of Lakshdweep, rather this is a universal phenomenon. Yogendra Singh (1996) is largely right when he says that Islamization cannotes increased tendency among the converts towards new identity formation based on an increase in orthodox Islamic principles in cultural life. It also results In the concious rejection of many syncretic elements which had thus far persisted in their culture as remnant of their Hindu (or tribal) past Such orthodox organizations as the Tableeghi-Jainaat (preaching fraternity) have been in the forefront in their endevour to ‘weed out’ the Pre-muslim/islamic cultural elements in the name of Islamic purity. However, the opposite trend is also visible among not only Muslim tribes but among the general Muslim population too. This is to achieve a symbiosis or integration of fusion of Islamic Great Traditions with the largely local Hindu Little Traditions.
• DESPITE it’s highly dogmatic nature Islam was able to find some adherants in tribal societies. It was largely because of the reason that Islam developed in a nomadic socio-cultural milieu and it's social structure had tribal egalitarian character. However, Muslim tribal societies themselves may well show marked internal differentiation in structure and organization.
• THE impact of Christianity, after Hinduism and the process of Hinduization, has been the most important area of acculturation studies among the tribes of India. The spread and impact of Christianity may be traced back to the establishment of the British colonial rule which led to the establishment of mission orgmzation and Churches in tribal areas especially in the north-eastern part and parts of Bihar, Orissa and Bengal. The missions on the one hand took to propogation of Christianity and on the other laid down an extensive network of social sevices such as education and healthcare. Thus, Christianity is the earliest agency of welfare in the tribal areas.
• INTRODUCTION of Christianity, no doubt, gave the tribal people a sense of confidence to tackle the new world and a sense of self-respect but at the same time it added to the complexities of their social-cultural life. It divided the tribal societies, wherever it succeeded, into vertical divisions. For example the Khasi of Meghalya were divided into Christian Khasis and non-Christian Khasis. The non-converted Khasis often looked at the converted Khasis contemptously. Wherever the Christian Khasis dominated in population they became a dominant community but wherever they were in small numbers they Could not cope up with the pressure of the non-converted majority arid had "to migrate to the urban centres or get themselves absorbed in the employment of missions.
• THE spread of Christianity led to a number of problems in the process of acculturation. When any tribal community takes to the process of Hinduization, they find it a gradual process-the changes are not sudden. Along with Hinduization the tribal beliefs and practices continue but adoption of Christianity leads to a sudden and radical departure from the past. Many of the traditional tribal beliefs and practices are denigrated and discarded. When we look at various aspects of culture change among the tribes as a result of adoption of Christianity, we find that the spread of Christianity encouraged right in personal or private property, patriarchal family system and doing away with such of their traditional institutions as ‘youth dormitories’.
• IN CERTAIN situations Christianity was adopted by the tribal people as a sign of revolt "or as a reaction to their ruthless exploitation by landlords, moneylenders, and traders who happended to be Hindus. The Kol rebellion (1932) arid spread of Christianity in and around Chotanagpur region may be a case in point. Christianity has also been the earliest channel of westernization in a number of tribal communities and regions. A new and western life style involving the western style dress, taking food on chair-table and going to Churches on Sundays attired in western dress are a common feature in a number of Christian tribal communities. Use of Cosmetics, perfumes, soap and shampoos, western music-etc. may also be seen in a number of areas among the Christian tribals.
• IN THE north-east region the spread of Christianity has brought about most radical transformation. The advent of Christianity in Mizoram may be traced back to the first quarter of twentieth Century. The spread of Christianity and spread of formal and modern education in Mizoram were complimentary to each other. The missionaries started formal education in the Lushai Hills. They wrote books both for general education arid Christian religion. Tribal languages were also promoted and developed along with spread of English language. With the spread of Christianity, belief in spirits and their appeasement through sacrifices and rituals were replaced by the new faith. “Under the old Mizo Customs marriages and divorces were easily gone through. With Christianity marriage, has attained a religious overtone.
  Monogamy has been accepted totally. Before the advert of Christianity, if a mother died at child birth the child would, also, be buried with the mother. The missionaries started homes for motherless babies which would take care of such -infants. With better medical cover such deaths of mothers at child birth have been eliminated" (Animesh Ray, 1993). It is regarded as fashionable to become a Christian and get educated and westernized among several Naga tribes such as Konyak Nagas and the, Ao Nagas. The Church associations advocate abstinence from drinking country rice beer (Zu) or any other alcoholic drink. They also advocate monogamy and discourage divorce.
• K.N. SAHAY (1963) made a detailed study of the tribal Christian converts of Chotanagpur. This study helps us to understand as to how Christianity has brought about a change of self image and identity among the tribal converts. He tells us that the immediate result is that the tribal converts begin to consider themselves different from the non- Christian and acquire a “sense of superiority” over the latter and think that they practice the “best religion of the world”. The catholic converts consider themselves to be the true adherents, of Christianity. It is significant that the oraon society which was culturally homogenous has come to be divided now because of the working of various denominations of Christianity. With conversion their self image and identity have also undergone tremendous transformation.
• WHEN we look at the role of Hinduism or Hinduisation, Christianity and Islam and their protagonists in a holistic way we find that by and large these were detrimental to the cultural autonomy and socioeconomic interests of the tribal people. The British colonial role followed the policy of isolation of the tribal people, the missionaries were interested in their conversions to Christianity, the Hindus demanded their total assimilation into the, larger Hindu society, the social worker's endevour has been to ‘civilize’, them and make them their carbon copies, the freedom, movement and its leaders wanted to bring them into the stream of national movement by creating a political conciousness among them. Every school of thought tried to understand the tribal people and their problems in their own ways and through their respective angles.
  The anthropologists had a clear vision of the tribal ethos and they wanted to understand the tribal people at the ideological level in consonance of their discipline “The British anthropologists on the governmental pay roll advocated isolationism, missionary-anthropologists like Stephen Fuchs saw tribal’s larger interest and welfare outside the domain of Hinduism, while anthropologists like Verrier Elwin were the advocates of tribalism and tribal revivalism. Anthropologists like D.N. Mazumdar emphasised upon the protection of tribal cultures so that they become a part of the larger Indian “federation of cultures (G.S. Bhatt, ibid).”
• THE tribal cultures in India can be protected, preserved and find a special and unique place in the vast sea of Indian culture only when acculturation is not imposed over them. When foreign missionaries convert them into Christians they rob them of their cultural autonomy. When Hindu organisations make them Hindus, they too, are guilty of attacking their cultural autonomy. Under these circumstances the assimilation of the tribal people take a political shape. In the interest of national unity the tribal people should be left alone to decide their fate and future so that they can achieve, if they like a cultural milieu in consonance of their requirements by way of mingling of Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and tribalism. As long as the foreign missionaries remain among the tribal populations the Hindu 'missionaries’ and the dogmatic social workers too cannot be prevented from disturbing the harmony of tribal life.
  The tribal cultures need to be protected from all sorts of missionaries, Christian, Hindu or Muslim. G.S. Bhatt (ibid) rightly calls for the indianization of Church in tribal areas to avoid several complications discussed in this chapter. When a prominent sociologist like G.S. Ghurye took the stand that the tribals were ‘Backward Hindus’ and needed to be brought into the Hindu fold through mass-scale and total assimilation, the activities of the foreign missionaries might also have played a part in his thinking. A popular opinion based on ‘Hindu Nationalism’ supported Ghurye’s contention. Unfortunately the competition and rivalry in propagation of faith has resulted in clash between minority and majority.
• COMPETITION in the propagation of religious faiths in secular India has dangerous potentiality of promoting the worst type of communalism. The recent happenings (1990s) in Gujarat and their offshoot in several other states bear testimony to it. Let the tribal people enjoy their cultural autonomy, make their own-decisions and participate in the nation-building process as equal partners in progress retaining their self-respect and keeping their heads high.