History, Art & Culture: February 2023 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Sarojini Naidu (The Nightingale of India)

Why in News?

13^th February marks the birth anniversary of Sarojini Naidu. She was famously known as Bharatiya Kokila (The Nightingale of India).

• India celebrates Sarojini Naidu's birth anniversary as National Women's Day.

Who was Sarojini Naidu?

About:

• Sarojini Naidu, was an Indian independence activist, poet, and politician.
• She was born on February 13, 1879, in Hyderabad, India.
• She joined the Indian national movement in the wake of partition of Bengal in 1905.
• The British government lauded Sarojini Naidu with the ‘Kaisar-i-Hind’ Medal for her service during the plague epidemic in India.

Contribution to Indian Freedom Movement

• First Indian Woman President of INC: Naidu was elected as the first Indian woman president of the Indian National Congress(INC) in 1925(Kanpur Session) and continued to hold this position till 1928.
• Annie Besant was the first woman President of the INC who presided it in 1917.
• Participated in Non-Cooperation Movement: Naidu took part in the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi in 1920 and was arrested several times for her involvement in various freedom activities.
• Lead Salt Satyagraha: In 1930, Naidu was selected by Gandhi to lead the Salt Satyagraha, a nonviolent protest against the British monopoly on salt production in India.
  • On May 21, Sarojini Naidu led 2,500 marchers on the Dharasana Salt Works, some 150 miles north of Bombay. 
• Quit India Movement: In 1942, Sarojini Naidu was arrested during the "Quit India" movement and was jailed for 21 months with Gandhiji.
• Traveled Abroad to Raise Awareness: Naidu traveled to different countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, to raise awareness about India's struggle for independence and to mobilize international support.
• She also represented India at various international forums and spoke about the Indian independence movement and women's rights.

Contribution as a Politician:

• Second Round Table Conference: She accompanied Gandhiji to London for the inconclusive second session of the Round Table Conference for Indian–British cooperation (1931).
• Governor of Uttar Pradesh: After India gained independence, Naidu was appointed as the governor of Uttar Pradesh, becoming the first woman to hold a governor's office in India.
• Other Contributions:
  • A Renowned Poetess: Naidu was a renowned poetess and wrote in both English and Urdu.
  • Published in 1912, ‘In the Bazaars of Hyderabad’ remains one of her most popular poems.
  • Her other works include "The Golden Threshold (1905)", "The Bird of Time (1912)", and "The Broken Wing (1912)".
  • Worked for Women's Empowerment: Naidu was a strong advocate of women's rights and worked tirelessly to empower women in India.
  • She was also a member of the All-India Women's Conference and worked to improve the status of women in India.

Death

• She died on March 2, 1949, in Lucknow, India.

Relevance of Sarojini Naidu in Present Times

• Sarojini Naidu was a multifaceted personality and remains a role model for women in India and around the world. Her courage, dedication, and leadership inspired millions of Indians and continue to inspire generations to come.

ASI Discovers 1,300-yr-old Buddhist Stupa

In News

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has found a 1,300-year-old stupa in the middle of a mining site in Odisha’s Jajpur district from where Khondalite stones were excavated for the project around the Jagannath Temple in Puri.

About

• The stupa could be 4.5 meters tall and initial assessment showed it may belong to the 7th or 8th century.
• The newly discovered stupa was possibly disfigured in an earlier period. The ASI would now attempt to fully retrieve the structure’s archaeological heritage, restore it to its original form and undertake the protection of the site.

Khondalite Stones

• Khondalite is a foliated metamorphic rock. In India, it is also called Bezwada Gneiss and Kailasa Gneiss. It was named after the Khond tribe of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh because well-formed examples of the rock were found in the inhabited hills of these regions of eastern India.
• Khondalite stones were supplied for the beautification project around the 12th Century Shree Jagannath Temple in Puri.
• Khondalite stones were widely used in ancient temple complexes, all the heritage projects in Puri will be developed by using the Khondalite stones to maintain the Kalinga architectural style.

Stupas in Buddhism

• Stupa is a commemorative monument usually housing sacred relics associated with the Buddha or other saintly persons.
• It is a hemispherical structure, with a spire at the top, sometimes situated on a base that varies in shape and size.
• Buddhist stupas were originally built to house the earthly remains of the historical Buddha and his associates and are almost invariably found at sites sacred to Buddhism. 
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, is the most famous and best-preserved early stupa in India.
• Types of stupas: Stupas are classified based on form and function into five types:
  • Relic stupa: Relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints are buried.
  • Object stupa: Objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.
  • Commemorative stupa: Built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.
  • Symbolic stupa: To symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology.
  • Votive stupa: Constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

• ASI is the premier organization for the archaeological research and protection of the cultural heritage of the nation under the Ministry of Culture. 
• Maintenance of ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance is the prime concern of the ASI. 
• It regulates all archaeological activities in the country as per the provisions of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, of 1958. It also regulates the Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, of 1972.

Dickinsonia Fossil

Why in News?

Fossils of an extinct species, Dickinsonia, that scientists reported in a discovery from India’s Bhimbetka Rock Shelters in 2021 have been found to be a false alarm.

• Researchers after a closer look at the site revealed the Dickinsonia fossil to really be wax smeared on a rock by a beehive.

What is Dickinsonia?

• Dickinsonia is an extinct primitive animal that inhabited seabeds around Australia, China, Russia, Ukraine, in the Ediacaran period, 600-500 million years ago. It was classified as an animal after discovery of cholesterol molecules in the fossils.
• It is believed to be one of the earliest animals to have existed on earth.

What are the Key Facts of Bhimbetka Rock Shelter?

History and Period Span

• The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period.
• It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km.
• Discovery: The Bhimbetka rock shelters were founded by V S Wakankar in1957.
• Location: It is located in Raisen District between Hoshangabad and Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.
• It is about 40 kilometres south-east of Bhopal in the foothills of the Vindhya Mountains.
• Paintings: Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the earliest are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), corresponding to the Indian Mesolithic.
• Most of these are done in red and white on the cave walls.
• A multitude of themes were covered in this form of rock art and it depicted scenes like singing, dancing, hunting and other common activities of the people staying there.
• The oldest of the cave paintings in Bhimbetka is believed to be about 12,000 years ago.

Keeladi Findings

Why in News?

Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has submitted a detailed report on the findings during the first two phases of the digging at the Sangam-era site and their significance.

• Also, the Keeladi Site Museum is coming up in Sivaganga that would house significant ones of the over 18,000 artefacts unearthed so far.

What are the Keypoints about Keeladi?

• Keeladi is a tiny hamlet in the Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu. It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river.
• The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilization existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam age on the banks of the Vaigai river.

What are the Key Findings?

• In the eight rounds of excavations, including the first three by the ASI, over 18,000 artefacts have been unearthed from the site and the unique artefacts will be on display at the museum to be opened soon.
• Unearthing of heaps of pottery suggest the existence of a pottery making industry, mostly made of locally available raw materials. Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found.
• Over a thousand inscribed potsherds, found at Keeladi and other sites clearly suggest the long survival of the script.
• Spindle whorls, copper needles, terracotta seal, hanging stones of the yarn, terracotta spheres and earthen vessels to hold liquid suggest various stages of a weaving industry. There also existed a dyeing industry and a glass bead industry.
• Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell bangles, ivory bangles and ivory combs reflect the artistic, culturally rich and prosperous lifestyle of the Keeladi people.
• Agate and carnelian beads suggest import through commercial networks while terracotta and ivory dice, gamesmen and evidence of hopscotch have been unearthed revealing their pastime hobbies.

What is the Significance of the Findings?

Linkages with Sangam Age

• The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the 3^rd century BCE to the 3^rd century CE and derives its name from the renowned Sangam assemblies of the poets of Madurai from that time.
• A recent ASI report has pushed the Sangam age to 800 BCE based on these archaeological findings.
• Keeladi could also provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

Potential Linkages with Indus Valley

• The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilization. The findings have also invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilization while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1,000 years between the two places.
• The gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.
• According to Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department (TNSDA) Keeladi has all the characteristics of an urban civilization, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade.
• It comes across as an industrious and advanced civilization and has given evidence of urban life and settlements in Tamil Nadu during the Early Historic Period.

What was the Controversy Surrounding Keeladi?

• After reports of possible links with the Indus Valley Civilization, there was “no significant finding” in the third round, which was seen as an attempt to play down the excavation findings.
• On the intervention of the Madras High Court, the TNSDA has been carrying out excavations since 4^th round instead of ASI to unearth more about the history of Tamil civilization.

Sangam Age

• The word ‘Sangam’ is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha which means a group of persons or an association.
• The Tamil Sangam was an academy of poets who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Pandyan kings.
• The Sangam literature which was largely consolidated from the third Sangam, throws information on conditions of life of people around the beginning of the Christian era.
  • It deals with the secular matter relating to the public and social activities like government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture, etc.
• Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works (such as the Tolkappiyam), the ten poems (Pattupattu), the eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the three epics.

Tamil-Brahmi Script

• The Brahmi script was the earliest script that the Tamils used.
• In the late ancient and early medieval period, they started evolving a new angular script, called the Grantha script, from which the modern Tamil is derived.

Vaigai River

• It is an east-flowing river.
• The Vaigai river basin is an important basin among the 12 basins lying between the Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
• This basin is bounded by the Cardamom Hills and the Palani Hills on the West and by the Palk Strait and Palk Bay on the East.

Mutiny Memorial tells the Story of 1857 Revolt

Mutiny Memorial (New Delhi) was initially built in 1863 to honour those who fought from the British side during the Revolt of 1857 but 25 years after Independence, they re-dedicated it to the memory of those Indians who lost their lives fighting the British.

• The monument has an indifferent gothic design with arched marble-backed recesses on all sides of the octagonal tower.

What was the 1857 Revolt?

• Indian Revolt of 1857-59 was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against the rule of British East India Company in India during Governor General Canning’s regime.
• It was the first expression of organised resistance against the company led by sepoys of the company, eventually securing the participation of the masses.
• The rebellion of 1857 is referred to by various names, including the Sepoy Mutiny (according to British historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (according to Indian historians), the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence (as per Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).

What were the Causes?

Immediate Causes:

• Greased Cartridges: The Revolt of 1857 was triggered by the use of new Enfield rifles whose cartridges were believed to be greased with cow and pig fat, leading to the refusal of both Hindu and Muslim sepoys to use them.
• Repression of Grievances: Mangal Pandey's refusal to use the cartridges in Barrackpore and subsequent hanging, along with the imprisonment of 85 soldiers in Meerut for similar refusal, were among the incidents that sparked the Revolt of 1857 in India.

Political Causes:

• Doctrine of Lapse: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
• The dislodgement of number of Indian rulers and chiefs and annexations including annexations of Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur and Awadh led to growing discontent against the Policy of expansion. Further many nobles, officials and soldiers were left jobless.

Social and Religious Causes:

• Spread of Western Civilization: The rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over the country.
• An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties, which was seen as an attempt to convert Indians to Christianity
• Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.
• Challenge to Orthodoxy: The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide, introduction of western education and the legislation legalizing widow remarriage, were believed as threats to the established social structure.

Economic Causes:

• Heavy Taxes: Peasants and zamindars, both were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land and the stringent methods of revenue collection.often leading to loss of ancestral land.
• Grievances of Sepoys: Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had family ties in villages, so the grievances of the peasants also affected them.
• Ruins of Local Industry and Handicrafts: After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured goods into India, which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry and handicrafts of India.

Military Causes:

• Unequal Remuneration: Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British troops in India but were considered inferior to British soldiers and paid less than European counterparts.
• Posting In Far Areas: They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes and across the seas. Crossing the sea was seen by many as losing the caste.

Who were the Leaders of Revolt?

What was the British Response?

• The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858 through severe repression.
• On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Lord Canning.

Why did the Revolt Fail?

• Limited Uprising: Although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained unaffected by it.
• The Southern provinces and the large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana did not join the rebellion
• No Effective Leadership: The rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective coordinated leadership to the movement.
• Limited Resources: The rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in India.
• No Participation of the Middle Class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

What were the Impacts of the Revolt?

• Direct Rule of the British Crown: The Government of India Act, 1858, ended company rule in India and brought it under the direct rule of the British Crown.
• The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the country.
• Religious Tolerance: It was promised, and due attention was paid to the customs and traditions of India. British support to religious reforms took a backseat.
• Administrative Change: The Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
• The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.
• The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
• Military Reorganisation: The ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but the armoury remained in the hands of the English.

Conclusion

The uprising of 1857 was a remarkable occurrence in the British era India. Despite failing in accomplishing its intended objective, it laid the foundation for Indian nationalism and brought together various segments of society to a certain extent.