UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: History Paper 1 (Section- B) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (10 x 5 = 50)

Brahmadeya grants were land grants made by rulers or other high-ranking officials to Brahmins or Brahmin institutions during the early medieval period in India. These grants were made for various reasons, including as a reward for the Brahmins' religious and scholarly services, to gain their support and allegiance, and to encourage the spread of Brahminical culture and religion in newly conquered territories. The land granted as Brahmadeya was exempt from taxes and other obligations, and the Brahmins were given full rights over the land, including the right to sell or lease it.

The large number of Brahmadeya grants in the early medieval period can be attributed to several factors:

1. Political: Rulers sought the support of Brahmins, who were influential in society, to legitimize their rule and maintain social order. By granting lands to the Brahmins, rulers could ensure their loyalty and support.

2. Socio-cultural: The early medieval period witnessed the resurgence of Brahminical orthodoxy and a decline in Buddhism and Jainism. Rulers patronized Brahmins to propagate Brahminical culture and religious practices, thereby consolidating their power and authority.

3. Economic: Land grants were an important source of revenue for the Brahmins, who in turn contributed to the economic development of the region through agricultural production, trade, and other activities. The Brahmadeya grants also facilitated the expansion of settlements and the development of infrastructure, such as roads and irrigation systems.

4. Religious: The early medieval period was marked by the construction of numerous temples and religious institutions. Land grants to Brahmins enabled them to maintain and manage these religious centers, which in turn attracted pilgrims and contributed to the growth of the local economy.
Examples of Brahmadeya grants include the Gadhwa inscription of Pratihara king Mihir Bhoja, which records a grant of land to a Brahmin named Devasharman; and the Aihole inscription of Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, which mentions a grant of land to a Brahmin for the maintenance of a temple. Overall, the Brahmadeya grants played a crucial role in shaping the socio-political landscape of early medieval India and contributed to the growth of Brahminical culture and religion.

(b) The establishment of large number of urban settlements in North India in the thirteenth century was principally owing to the deployment or Turkish garrisons across the lands. Comment.      (10 Marks)

The establishment of large numbers of urban settlements in North India during the thirteenth century can be attributed to various factors, one of the most prominent being the deployment of Turkish garrisons across the region. This period marked the beginning of Turkish rule in India, which significantly impacted the social, economic, and political landscape of North India.

(i) The Turkish rulers, under the Delhi Sultanate, focused on consolidating their power and extending their territories. To achieve this, they established multiple military garrisons in strategic locations across the region. These garrisons were usually stationed in the vicinity of important trade routes, river crossings, and passes, which allowed for better control and protection of these critical pathways.

(ii) The presence of these garrisons led to the growth of urban settlements around them. The soldiers and their families required various services and goods, which in turn led to the emergence of local markets, artisans, and service providers. The garrisons also attracted traders and merchants, who saw opportunities in supplying the military with necessary resources. Furthermore, the increased security provided by the garrisons encouraged people from surrounding rural areas to migrate to these developing urban centers.

(iii) Additionally, the Turkish rulers invested in building infrastructure, such as forts, roads, and irrigation systems. These developments supported the growth of agriculture and trade, which further contributed to the urbanization process. The establishment of administrative centers, where the Turkish officials and local elites resided, also played a role in attracting people to these urban settlements.

(iv) Another factor that contributed to the growth of urban settlements was the spread of Islam, which was the religion of the Turkish rulers. As the influence of Islam grew in the region, it led to the construction of mosques, madrasas, and other religious institutions. These institutions, along with the patronage of the Turkish rulers, attracted scholars, theologians, and artists, which further enhanced the cultural and intellectual vibrancy of these urban centers.

In conclusion, the deployment of Turkish garrisons across North India during the thirteenth century played a crucial role in the establishment and growth of urban settlements. The presence of these garrisons led to increased security, trade, and administrative activities, which in turn attracted people from various walks of life, leading to the development of new urban centers.

(c) Much of the political instability after the death or lltutmish was the doing of the Chahalgan. Elucidate.      (10 Marks)

The Chahalgani, also known as the Forty, was an influential group of forty Turkish slave officers who served under the Sultan Iltutmish in the early 13th century. The Chahalgani played a crucial role in the administration and governance of the Delhi Sultanate and often held powerful positions within the government. After the death of Iltutmish in 1236, the Chahalgani's role in the political instability that ensued can be elucidated through their power struggles, rivalries, and their attempts to control the succession of the throne.

(i) Firstly, the Chahalgani's power struggles among its members led to political instability. As each member of the Chahalgani sought to increase their influence and control over the government, they often resorted to intrigue, betrayal, and assassination. This constant infighting weakened the central authority of the Delhi Sultanate and created an atmosphere of distrust, making it difficult for any stable government to function effectively.

(ii) Secondly, the rivalries between the Chahalgani and other factions within the Delhi Sultanate further fueled political instability. As the Chahalgani attempted to maintain their dominance over the government, they faced opposition from other powerful groups, such as the nobles, the ulema, and regional governors. These rivalries led to constant power struggles, which further weakened the central authority of the Delhi Sultanate and created a political vacuum.

(iii) Moreover, the Chahalgani's attempts to control the succession of the throne led to a series of weak and ineffective rulers. After the death of Iltutmish, the Chahalgani initially supported Ruknuddin Firoz, Iltutmish's eldest son, as the new Sultan. However, Ruknuddin Firoz was incompetent and unpopular, and the Chahalgani soon turned against him, leading to his deposition and the ascension of his sister, Razia Sultan, to the throne. Razia's rule was marked by her attempt to break free from the control of the Chahalgani, which further increased the animosity between the two factions. Eventually, the Chahalgani orchestrated her downfall, leading to a period of political chaos and the rise of several weak rulers, including Muizuddin Bahram Shah and Ala ud-din Masud Shah.

In conclusion, the Chahalgani played a significant role in the political instability that followed the death of Iltutmish. Their power struggles, rivalries, and attempts to control the succession of the throne led to a weakened central authority, constant infighting, and a series of ineffective rulers. Ultimately, their actions contributed to the fragmentation of the Delhi Sultanate and set the stage for the rise of regional powers and the eventual disintegration of the empire.

(d) The Rajput school of painting was Mughal in style and Rajput in its content. Comment.      (10 Marks)

The Rajput school of painting, also known as Rajasthani painting, originated in the 16th century in the region of Rajasthan, India. It was a fusion of indigenous and Mughal styles, and it is this unique blend that made the Rajput school of painting distinctive and significant in the history of Indian art.

(i) The Mughal influence on Rajput painting can be attributed to the political and cultural interactions between the Rajput kingdoms and the Mughal Empire. The Mughals were known for their refined taste in art and their patronage of artists, which significantly impacted the artistic styles in the regions under their rule. The Rajput artists adopted various elements of the Mughal style, such as the use of fine brushwork, attention to detail, and the portrayal of naturalism.

(ii) However, the content of Rajput paintings remained deeply rooted in Rajput traditions and culture. The subjects of these paintings were primarily inspired by Rajput history, mythology, and literature. The themes included depictions of Hindu deities, scenes from epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and portrayals of the life and courtly activities of Rajput rulers.

(iii) One famous example of Rajput painting is the Bundi school, which emerged in the princely state of Bundi around the 17th century. The Bundi school is known for its unique compositions, vibrant colors, and the depiction of nature in the form of lush landscapes, rivers, and dense forests. The paintings often featured scenes from the life of Lord Krishna, such as his childhood and his romantic dalliances with Radha and the gopis.

(iv) The Pahari school of painting, which originated in the Himalayan foothills, is another example of the Rajput style. This school is known for its delicate and lyrical treatment of subjects, with a strong emphasis on emotion and mood. The Pahari paintings often depicted the love story of Radha and Krishna, as well as scenes from the Bhagavata Purana and other Hindu scriptures.

In conclusion, the Rajput school of painting was a unique fusion of Mughal and Rajput artistic styles. While the Mughal influence can be seen in the technique and finesse of the paintings, the content remained true to Rajput culture and traditions. This amalgamation of styles gave rise to a rich and diverse artistic legacy that remains an essential part of India's cultural heritage.

(e) Account for the rise of the Maratha power in the eighteenth century.      (10 Marks)

The rise of the Maratha power in the eighteenth century can be attributed to various political, social, and economic factors. The Marathas emerged as a formidable force under the leadership of Shivaji and later under the Peshwas. The decline of the Mughal Empire, the Maratha's strong military organization, and their revenue system played a significant role in their rise to power.

1. Decline of the Mughal Empire: The weakening of the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb created a political vacuum, which allowed the Marathas to expand their territory. The Mughal Empire was facing internal strife and external invasions, which provided an opportunity for the Marathas to rise in prominence.

2. Leadership of Shivaji and Peshwas: The foundation of the Maratha power was laid by Shivaji, who established an independent kingdom and a well-organized administration. His successors, the Peshwas, consolidated and expanded the Maratha Empire, bringing it to its zenith during the eighteenth century.

3. Military Organization: The Marathas had a strong military organization, which was instrumental in their rise to power. They had a decentralized military system, with local chieftains (Sardars) leading their own forces. Their guerrilla warfare tactics, known as 'Ganimi Kava,' were highly effective against their enemies.

4. Revenue System: The Maratha revenue system, known as the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, was another significant factor in their rise to power. Chauth was a 25% tax levied on the territories under Maratha control, while Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% tax collected from the revenue-paying lands. This system provided the Marathas with a steady income, which, in turn, enabled them to maintain a strong military force.

5. Expansion under Peshwas: The Peshwas expanded the Maratha territories by forming alliances, conquests, and diplomatic means. They successfully campaigned against the Mughals, the Portuguese, and the British, further consolidating their power.

6. Support from the masses: The Marathas enjoyed popular support from the masses, as they were seen as the protectors of Hinduism against the Mughal rule. This support helped them in their rise to power and in maintaining their rule.

In conclusion, the rise of the Maratha power in the eighteenth century can be attributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire, strong leadership under Shivaji and the Peshwas, a well-organized military system, an effective revenue system, territorial expansion, and popular support from the masses. These factors collectively contributed to the emergence of the Marathas as a dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the eighteenth century.

Q.6. Answer the following questions:

Ala-ud-din Khilji was the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty, who ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1296 to 1316 A.D. He was known for his ambitious military conquests, which expanded the territorial boundaries of the Sultanate. To support his military campaigns and maintain a large standing army, he introduced various market regulations and economic measures. While these measures served to strengthen the military might of the Sultanate, they had several adverse effects on the economy.

The market regulations of Ala-ud-din Khilji can be analyzed under the following categories:

1. Price control measures: Ala-ud-din Khilji introduced price control measures on various commodities, including essential items like food grains, cloth, and livestock. This was done to ensure a regular supply of affordable provisions for the soldiers and the urban population. However, these price controls discouraged the production of these commodities, as the profit margins for the producers and traders were significantly reduced. This led to a decline in the agricultural and industrial production, negatively impacting the overall economy of the Sultanate.

2. Taxation policies: Ala-ud-din Khilji imposed heavy taxes on the agricultural produce, which was primarily used to support his military campaigns. The high taxes left the peasants with little surplus, leading to impoverishment and frequent defaults on tax payments. This further contributed to the decline in agricultural production and consequently affected the economy.

3. Monopolization of trade: To maintain a constant supply of essential commodities at controlled prices, Ala-ud-din Khilji established state-run markets called "Shahana-i-Mandi." These markets were responsible for procuring and distributing the essential items at fixed prices. However, this monopolization by the state discouraged private traders and merchants from engaging in trade, leading to a decline in commerce and overall economic activity.

4. Suppression of the merchant class: To enforce price controls and prevent hoarding, Ala-ud-din Khilji introduced harsh punishments for the merchants who violated the regulations. This led to a general atmosphere of fear and insecurity among the merchant class, further discouraging them from engaging in trade and commerce.

5. Debasement of the currency: In order to finance his military campaigns, Ala-ud-din Khilji resorted to debasing the currency by reducing the silver content in the coins. This led to inflation and reduced the purchasing power of the people, adversely affecting the economy.

In conclusion, while the market regulations of Ala-ud-din Khilji did help him in strengthening his military might and maintaining a large standing army, they had several adverse effects on the economy of the Sultanate. The decline in agricultural and industrial production, the suppression of the merchant class, and the debasement of the currency all contributed to the weakening of the economy, which eventually led to the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

(b) Examine the nature of the Manasabdari system during the reign of Akbar.      (15 Marks)

The Manasabdari system was a unique administrative and military system introduced by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in the late 16th century, which continued with modifications throughout the Mughal period. It was a system of ranking and salary, which helped in the efficient administration of the empire and ensured loyalty from the Mughal nobility.

Nature of the Manasabdari system during the reign of Akbar:

1. Hierarchical Ranks: The system was based on hierarchical ranks known as 'mansabs,' which were divided into two categories - Zat and Sawar. The Zat rank denoted the personal status of the mansabdar (rank holder) and determined his salary, while the Sawar rank indicated the number of horsemen (cavalry) he had to maintain for military service. The mansabdars were ranked from the lowest level of 10 to the highest level of 5,000.

2. Merit-based Appointments: Akbar introduced a merit-based system for appointments to various positions in the administration. This was a significant change from the traditional system, which was based on hereditary and kinship ties. The merit-based system encouraged loyalty and efficiency in the administration.

3. Diverse Backgrounds: Akbar's policy of religious tolerance and inclusion led to the appointment of mansabdars from diverse backgrounds, including Hindus, Muslims, and foreigners. This diversity strengthened the empire as it encouraged cooperation and unity among different communities.

4. Military and Civil Responsibilities: The mansabdars were responsible for both military and civil duties. They were required to maintain a specified number of troops and horses and were also responsible for the collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order within their assigned territories.

5. Transfer and Rotation: The mansabdars were regularly transferred and rotated to prevent the development of regional loyalties and to ensure their loyalty to the emperor. This system also allowed for effective control and supervision of the administration.

6. Jagir System: The mansabdars were paid through the assignment of jagirs, which were land grants from which they were expected to generate revenue to maintain their troops and meet their personal expenses. This system ensured that the mansabdars remained financially dependent on the emperor, thus ensuring loyalty.

7. Checks and Balances: To prevent abuse of power, the Manasabdari system had several checks and balances such as the separation of powers between the military and the civil administration, the regular transfer of mansabdars, and the appointment of imperial officers (such as the Bakshi, Mir Bakhshi, and Diwan) to keep an eye on the mansabdars and maintain a record of their services.

Examples of mansabdars during Akbar's reign:

1. Raja Todar Mal: He was a prominent Hindu mansabdar who played a crucial role in the Mughal administration. He was responsible for introducing several revenue and land reforms, such as the Zabt system and the Dahsala system.

2. Raja Man Singh: Another important Hindu mansabdar, Raja Man Singh, was a trusted general and commander of Akbar's army. He successfully led military campaigns in various parts of the empire, such as Rajasthan and the Deccan.

3. Mirza Aziz Koka: A high-ranking mansabdar and foster brother of Akbar, Mirza Aziz Koka, played an essential role in consolidating Mughal rule in Gujarat and suppressing rebellions.

In conclusion, the Manasabdari system was an essential aspect of Mughal administration during Akbar's reign, which contributed significantly to the efficient administration of the empire and the maintenance of law and order. It ensured loyalty from the nobility and promoted meritocracy, religious tolerance, and diversity in the administration.

(c) Chola maritime expansion was driven largely by concerns of overseas commerce. Elucidate.      (15 Marks)

The Chola dynasty, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India, reached its zenith during the medieval period (c. 9th to 13th centuries CE). The Chola Empire was not only a powerful military and political force but also a significant economic power. The maritime expansion of the Cholas was driven primarily by the concerns of overseas commerce, which played a crucial role in the prosperity and influence of the empire.

There are several factors which elucidate the role of overseas commerce in driving Chola maritime expansion:

1. Trade relations with Southeast Asia: The Cholas were actively involved in trade relations with Southeast Asian countries such as the present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and Cambodia. This trade was facilitated by the establishment of overseas colonies by the Cholas. The Cholas conquered parts of the Indonesian archipelago, establishing a colony in Sri Vijaya (present-day Sumatra) and influencing the development of the Hindu-Buddhist culture in the region. The Cholas also maintained strong trade ties with the Khmer Empire, which was also a major trading partner.

2. Control over strategic sea routes: The Cholas aimed to control the strategic sea routes of the Indian Ocean, which were essential for trade with the Arab world, China, and Southeast Asia. These sea routes were used to transport goods such as spices, textiles, gems, and precious metals. By controlling these routes, the Cholas ensured a steady flow of wealth and resources, which enhanced their economic and political power.

3. Naval power: The Cholas had a powerful navy that was instrumental in their maritime expansion. The naval fleet was used for both military conquests and the protection of trade routes. The Chola navy was capable of undertaking long-distance expeditions, as evident from the successful raids on the ports of Srivijaya and the Malabar coast. Moreover, the Chola navy played a crucial role in maintaining the empire's maritime dominance and ensuring the safety of its trade routes.

4. Development of ports and trade centers: The Cholas developed many ports and trade centers within their empire, which facilitated overseas commerce. The port of Nagapattinam, for instance, was a major center for trade and commerce, attracting merchants from Arabia, China, and Southeast Asia. Similarly, other ports such as Kaveripattinam and Mamallapuram were also important trading hubs. These ports served as vital links in the maritime trade network, contributing to the empire's economic prosperity.

5. Diplomacy and treaties: The Cholas maintained diplomatic relations with several foreign powers to bolster their overseas commerce. They signed treaties and agreements with countries such as China, Srivijaya, and the Fatimid Caliphate, which allowed them to trade freely in the respective regions. This diplomatic engagement helped the Cholas secure their trade interests and expand their maritime influence.

In conclusion, the Chola maritime expansion was driven primarily by concerns of overseas commerce, which played a crucial role in enhancing the empire's economic prosperity and political influence. The Cholas sought to establish control over strategic sea routes, develop ports and trade centers, maintain diplomatic relations with foreign powers, and build a powerful navy to protect their trade interests. This maritime expansion not only facilitated the flow of wealth and resources into the Chola Empire but also contributed to the spread of Indian culture and the influence of the Chola dynasty in the wider Indian Ocean region.

Q.7. Answer the following questions:

The Virashaiva Movement, also known as the Lingayat Movement, emerged in the Southern Deccan region of India during the twelfth century. It was a socio-religious reform movement led by the philosopher and poet, Basava, and his followers, the Sharanas. The main aim of the movement was to fight against the rigid caste system, social discrimination, and religious dogmas prevalent in society during that time.

The Virashaiva Movement can be understood as an attempt at social reform due to the following reasons:

1. Opposition to the Caste System: The movement aimed to break the shackles of the caste system, which was the root cause of social discrimination in society. Basava and other Sharanas propagated the idea of social equality and brotherhood among people, irrespective of their caste, creed, or gender. They rejected the caste-based division of labor, and encouraged people to choose their profession based on their interest and aptitude, rather than their birth.

2. Gender Equality: The Virashaiva Movement gave equal importance to women and encouraged their participation in religious and social activities. Women were given equal opportunities in education and were allowed to become Sharanas, contributing to the movement through their vachanas (poetic compositions). Some of the prominent women Sharanas include Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and Siddharama.

3. Focus on Individualistic Spirituality: The movement emphasized the importance of personal spiritual experiences and rejected the need for rituals, temples, and idols for attaining salvation. It promoted the worship of the Linga, a symbol of Lord Shiva, as a means of attaining spiritual realization, which could be achieved through self-discipline, moral values, and social service.

4. Emphasis on Vernacular Language: The Virashaiva Movement encouraged the use of the local language, Kannada, instead of Sanskrit, which was the language of the elite. This helped in making religious and philosophical ideas more accessible to the common people, thereby promoting social and cultural integration among different sections of society.

5. Establishment of Anubhava Mantapa: The Anubhava Mantapa was established as a spiritual and social institution where people from all walks of life could come together to discuss spiritual and social issues. It fostered a sense of unity and brotherhood among people, transcending the barriers of caste, creed, and gender.

The Virashaiva Movement was a significant attempt at social reform in the twelfth century Southern Deccan region. Through its emphasis on social equality, gender equality, individualistic spirituality, and vernacular language, the movement challenged the prevailing social and religious norms of the time.

(b) The various Gharanas of Hindustani classical music were outcomes of patronage by regional princely courts, rather than central imperial ones. Discuss.      (15 Marks)

Hindustani classical music has a rich tradition that evolved over centuries, with the Gharana system being one of its most significant aspects. Gharanas are unique schools or styles of music, each having its distinct characteristics, techniques, and repertoire. The emergence and sustenance of these Gharanas can be attributed to the patronage extended by regional princely courts rather than central imperial ones.

During the medieval period and even before that, India was divided into various small kingdoms and provinces ruled by regional princes and rulers. These rulers were great patrons of arts and culture, and they encouraged artists and musicians to settle in their kingdoms. This led to the development of unique styles of classical music, specific to the region and the court where the musicians performed. As a result, a strong regional character emerged, which was nurtured by these local courts.

Some examples of Gharanas and their regional association are as follows:

1. Gwalior Gharana: One of the oldest and most prominent Gharanas, Gwalior Gharana had its origins in the court of Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior. The Gharana is known for its unique style of Khayal Gayaki and has produced several legendary musicians like Tansen, Baiju Bawra, and Haddu Khan.

2. Agra Gharana: The Agra Gharana, known for its powerful and robust style of singing, has its roots in the court of Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur. Later, it got associated with the Mughal court in Agra, where musicians like Nayak Gopal and Ghagghe Khuda Baksh were patronized.

3. Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana: This Gharana traces its origin to the royal court of Atrauli, a small town in Rajasthan, where musicians like Alladiya Khan and Kesarbai Kerkar were patronized. The Gharana is known for its intricate and complex Ragas and compositions.

4. Kirana Gharana: The Kirana Gharana, known for its melodious and soulful style of singing, evolved in the court of Raja Rahulraj Singh of Kairana in Uttar Pradesh. The Gharana is associated with legendary musicians like Ustad Abdul Karim Khan and Ustad Amir Khan.

5. Patiala Gharana: The Patiala Gharana emerged in the court of Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, who was a great patron of music. The Gharana is known for its Thumri and Ghazal styles and has produced musicians like Bade Ghulam Ali Khan and Barkat Ali Khan.

The patronage by regional princely courts played a significant role in shaping the distinct styles and character of various Gharanas. The financial support, honor, and prestige that the musicians received in these courts allowed them to experiment, innovate, and develop their unique styles. Moreover, the regional influences and the cultural milieu of these courts contributed to the diversity of Hindustani classical music.

In conclusion, the Gharana system of Hindustani classical music can be seen as an outcome of the patronage extended by regional princely courts. These courts not only provided the necessary support and encouragement for musicians to develop their unique styles but also contributed to the rich diversity that characterizes Hindustani classical music.

(c) The prolonged conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahmani successor states was influenced less by cultural factors, and more by strategic and economic considerations. Comment.      (15 Marks)

The prolonged conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahmani successor states, which lasted for almost two centuries, was primarily driven by strategic and economic considerations rather than cultural factors. Although the Vijayanagara Kingdom was predominantly Hindu while the Bahmani Sultanate and its successor states were Muslim, their rivalry was not primarily religious or cultural in nature. Instead, it was a struggle for power, territory, and resources, particularly in the Deccan region of India.

1. Strategic considerations: The Deccan region in southern India was a crucial point of contention between the two powers because of its strategic location between the northern and southern parts of the Indian subcontinent. The Deccan plateau provided a natural barrier that separated the two powers, and control over this region would give either kingdom a significant strategic advantage. Additionally, the Deccan was an important trade route connecting the ports on the western coast of India with those on the eastern coast. Control over the Deccan would not only ensure territorial dominance but also secure access to vital trade routes.

2. Economic considerations: Economic factors played a significant role in the conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahmani successor states. Both powers sought to control the lucrative trade routes passing through the Deccan region. The region was also rich in natural resources, including fertile land, forests, and mineral deposits such as diamonds, gold, and iron. Controlling these resources was vital for the prosperity and power of both kingdoms.
For example, the famous diamond mines of Golconda were initially under the control of the Bahmani Sultanate, but the Vijayanagara Kingdom tried to gain control over these mines because of their immense economic value. The struggle for control over the diamond mines was one of the primary reasons for the Battle of Raichur in 1520, in which the Vijayanagara Kingdom emerged victorious, briefly gaining control over the diamond mines before they were eventually retaken by the Qutb Shahi dynasty, one of the Bahmani successor states.

3. Political rivalry: The political rivalry between the two powers was also a significant factor that fueled the conflict. Both the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahmani Sultanate sought to expand their territories and influence in the Indian subcontinent. They frequently formed alliances with smaller regional powers to strengthen their position against each other, which further intensified the rivalry between them.
For instance, the Bahmani Sultanate formed alliances with the kingdoms of Malwa and Gujarat in the north, while the Vijayanagara Kingdom sought alliances with the Gajapati Kingdom of Odisha and the Portuguese in the south. These alliances often led to wars and skirmishes between the two powers and their allies, further prolonging the conflict.

In conclusion, the prolonged conflict between the Vijayanagara Kingdom and the Bahmani successor states was primarily driven by strategic, economic, and political factors rather than cultural differences. While religious and cultural factors might have played a role in shaping the identity and propaganda of both powers, they were not the main drivers of the conflict. The struggle for control over the Deccan region and its resources, as well as political rivalry, were the primary factors that influenced the course of the conflict between these two powers.

Q.8. Answer the following questions:

The Mughal Empire (1526-1858) was one of the most significant periods in the history of the Indian subcontinent. Trade and commerce played a crucial role in the integration of the Indian subcontinent into a single market during this era. The Mughal Empire facilitated the development of a vast and efficient economic system, which led to the growth of trade and commerce within the empire and with other countries. Several factors contributed to this integration, such as the establishment of a unified political system, the expansion of road networks and communication systems, the development of urban centers, and the promotion of a common market.

1. Unified political system: The Mughal Empire brought about political stability and unity to the Indian subcontinent. The empire expanded its territories, encompassing almost the entire subcontinent under a single political entity. This resulted in the establishment of a common administration system and standardization of laws and regulations governing trade and commerce. This uniformity allowed for the seamless movement of goods and people across the empire, fostering the growth of a single market.

2. Road networks and communication systems: The Mughal Empire placed great emphasis on the expansion of road networks and communication systems. They built a vast network of roads, which connected various cities, towns, and villages, allowing for the efficient movement of goods and people. The Grand Trunk Road, for example, connected the major cities of Delhi, Agra, and Lahore, facilitating trade and commerce between these urban centers. The Mughals also developed an efficient postal system, which allowed for the swift exchange of information and communication, further enhancing the growth of a single market.

3. Development of urban centers: The Mughal era witnessed the growth of numerous urban centers across the Indian subcontinent. These cities, such as Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri, became hubs of trade and commerce. They attracted merchants, traders, and artisans from different regions, fostering the exchange of goods, ideas, and technology. The urban centers also served as nodal points in the economic network, linking local markets with the larger imperial market.

4. Promotion of a common market: The Mughals actively promoted a common market by encouraging inter-regional trade and commerce. They abolished internal customs duties and levied uniform taxes on goods transported across the empire, facilitating the free flow of goods and the development of a single market. The Mughals also issued standardized coins, such as the silver rupee, which helped in the creation of a common currency system across the empire.

5. International trade: The Mughal Empire maintained strong trade relations with several countries, such as the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Persia, and European nations like Portugal, England, and France. This international trade brought about an influx of foreign goods, ideas, and technology, which further integrated the Indian subcontinent into the global market. The presence of European trading companies, such as the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, also played a crucial role in the growth of trade and commerce in the Mughal Empire.

In conclusion, trade and commerce in the Mughal Empire played a significant role in the integration of the Indian subcontinent into a single market. The unified political system, expansion of road networks, development of urban centers, promotion of a common market, and international trade all contributed to the growth of a well-connected and efficient economic system. This integration not only benefited the economy of the empire but also helped in the cultural and social exchange, contributing to the overall development and prosperity of the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era.

(b) Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a major factor in Mughal decline. Discuss.      (15 Marks)

Aurangzeb's Deccan policy refers to the series of military and political actions undertaken by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb during his reign (1658-1707) to expand and consolidate the Mughal Empire in the Deccan region of India. This policy played a significant role in the decline of the Mughal Empire, as it led to the weakening of the empire's financial and military resources, as well as exacerbating internal divisions and external threats.

1. Prolonged military campaigns: Aurangzeb's policy involved a series of long and costly military campaigns in the Deccan region. These campaigns included the conquest of the Bijapur and Golconda kingdoms, as well as the suppression of the Maratha rebellion led by Shivaji and his successors. These wars not only drained the empire's financial resources but also led to the loss of a significant number of soldiers and military commanders.

2. Neglect of the northwestern frontier: Aurangzeb's focus on the Deccan led to the neglect of the empire's northwestern frontier, which was crucial for its security. This allowed external threats, such as the Persian and Afghan invasions, to weaken the empire further. The most significant of these invasions was the sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739, which marked the beginning of the rapid disintegration of the Mughal Empire.

3. Overextension of the empire: The annexation of the Deccan territories led to the overextension of the Mughal Empire, making it difficult to govern and maintain control over such a vast area. The empire's administrative machinery was stretched thin, leading to inefficiency and corruption. This, in turn, caused widespread discontent and rebellion among the local population.

4. Rise of regional powers: Aurangzeb's Deccan policy also led to the rise of regional powers that would eventually challenge Mughal authority. The most notable of these was the Maratha Empire, which emerged as a significant threat to the Mughals after Aurangzeb's death. Other regional powers, such as the Sikhs, Jats, and Rajputs, also grew stronger as a result of the weakening of the Mughal Empire.

5. Religious policies: Aurangzeb's religious policies, which sought to impose orthodox Sunni Islam on the diverse population of the Deccan, further alienated the local Hindu and Shia Muslim population. This led to increased religious tensions and contributed to the rise of anti-Mughal sentiment in the region.

6. Financial strain: The prolonged military campaigns in the Deccan put immense strain on the empire's financial resources. The cost of maintaining a large standing army, combined with the loss of revenue from the conquered territories, led to a decline in the empire's economic stability. This, in turn, made it difficult for the Mughals to maintain their military and administrative apparatus, leading to further decline.

In conclusion, Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a major factor in the decline of the Mughal Empire. The prolonged military campaigns, neglect of the northwestern frontier, overextension of the empire, rise of regional powers, religious policies, and financial strain all contributed to the weakening of the empire, ultimately leading to its disintegration.

(c) The Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of the fifteenth century contributed in the flourishing of provincial literature. Discuss with appropriate examples.      (15 Marks)

The Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of the fifteenth century played a significant role in the flourishing of provincial literature in various regions of India. This movement, which propagated devotion to Lord Vishnu and his various incarnations, particularly Lord Krishna, led to the growth of regional languages and their literatures, as the Bhakti saints composed their works in local languages to reach a wider audience. Some of the prominent examples are as follows:

1. Bengali Literature: The works of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and his disciples, such as the six Goswamis of Vrindavan, enriched the Bengali literature of this period. Their contribution includes the Chaitanya Charitamrita by Krishnadasa Kaviraja, which is a biography of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, and Chaitanya Bhagavata by Vrindavana Dasa Thakura.

2. Assamese Literature: Sankardeva, the founder of the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition in Assam, composed various religious and literary works in Assamese, including the Kirtan Ghosa, which is a collection of devotional songs, and the Borgeets, which are lyrical compositions in praise of Lord Krishna.

3. Maithili Literature: Vidyapati, a prominent poet of the fifteenth century, composed numerous devotional songs in Maithili, a language spoken in the Mithila region of present-day Bihar and Nepal. His collection of Vaishnava Padavali is considered a masterpiece of Maithili literature.

4. Odia Literature: The Vaishnava Bhakti movement in Odisha was led by poets like Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, and Achyutananda Dasa. Their works, such as the Jagamohana Ramayana, Harivamsa, and Bhakti Chandrika, contributed significantly to the growth of Odia literature.

5. Gujarati Literature: The fifteenth-century saint-poet Narsinh Mehta composed numerous devotional songs in Gujarati language, which have become an integral part of the Gujarati literary tradition. His most famous composition is the "Vaishnav Jan To," which is a popular devotional song even today.

6. Marathi Literature: The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra was led by saints like Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, who composed their works in Marathi. Jnaneshwar's Jnaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, and Tukaram's Abhangas are considered some of the finest examples of Marathi literature.

7. Kannada Literature: The Haridasa movement, a part of the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition, greatly influenced the Kannada literature of the fifteenth century. The works of Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, who were prominent Haridasas, enriched the Kannada literary tradition with their compositions.

In conclusion, the Vaishnava Bhakti tradition of the fifteenth century played a crucial role in the flourishing of provincial literature across various regions of India. The saints and poets of this movement composed their works in local languages, which not only made religious teachings accessible to the common masses but also enriched the literary traditions of these languages.