UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: History Paper 2 (Section- A) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words:

 (10 x 5 = 50)

The statement "The Battle of Plassey (1757) was a skirmish while the Battle of Buxar (1764) was a real war" highlights the difference in scale and significance between the two battles in the context of Indian history, particularly during the British colonization of India.

1. The Battle of Plassey, fought on June 23, 1757, was an encounter between the British East India Company, led by Robert Clive, and the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. The battle was triggered by the growing British influence in Bengal, which the Nawab saw as a threat to his authority. Although the battle itself was relatively small-scale, lasting only a few hours, its outcome had a significant impact on the balance of power in the region. The British victory at Plassey paved the way for the consolidation of British power in Bengal and eventually led to the establishment of British rule in India. However, the battle itself was more of a skirmish, with limited troops and tactical maneuvering involved.

2. On the other hand, the Battle of Buxar, fought on October 22, 1764, was a more significant, large-scale military engagement between the British East India Company and a combined force of the Nawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The battle resulted from the growing discontent among various Indian powers over the increasing British influence and control in the region, which had been accelerating since the Battle of Plassey. The Battle of Buxar was a decisive victory for the British, and it effectively marked the end of the Mughal Empire's dominance in India, as well as the decline of other regional powers.

The significance of the Battle of Buxar as a "real war" compared to the Battle of Plassey as a "skirmish" is evident in several ways:

1. Scale of engagement: The Battle of Buxar involved a larger number of troops on both sides, with approximately 7,000 British troops facing a combined force of around 40,000 Indian soldiers. Conversely, the Battle of Plassey saw only about 3,000 British troops against approximately 50,000 of the Nawab's forces, many of whom were not fully committed to the fight due to internal conspiracies.

2. Duration: The Battle of Buxar lasted for several hours, with fierce fighting and numerous casualties, whereas the Battle of Plassey was over in a much shorter time, with comparatively fewer casualties.

3. Political implications: The outcome of the Battle of Buxar had far-reaching consequences for the political landscape of India, as it firmly established British dominance in the region and led to the decline of the Mughal Empire and other regional powers. The Battle of Plassey, while significant in setting the stage for British control in Bengal, did not have the same immediate and widespread impact.

In conclusion, the Battle of Plassey and the Battle of Buxar were both crucial events in the history of British colonization in India. However, the scale, duration, and political implications of the two battles differ significantly, with the Battle of Buxar representing a more extensive and consequential "real war" compared to the skirmish-like nature of the Battle of Plassey.

(b) 'The Treaty of Amritsar (1809) was significant for its immediate as well as potential effects.'      (10 Marks)

The Treaty of Amritsar, signed between the British East India Company and Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire, was a significant event in the history of colonial India. The treaty, negotiated by Charles Metcalfe, was aimed at establishing a peaceful alliance between the British and the Sikh Empire, which was emerging as a major power in northern India. The treaty bears significance for several reasons.

(i) Firstly, the Treaty of Amritsar played a crucial role in the British policy of containing the French influence and expansionist ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte in India. The alliance with the Sikhs served as a buffer between the British territories and potential French allies in the northwestern frontier, such as the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan.

(ii) Secondly, the treaty marked the end of the expansionist policy of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. As per the treaty, the Maharaja agreed not to expand his territories to the south of the Sutlej River, which also served as a boundary between the Sikh Empire and the British territories. This agreement helped maintain peace and stability in the region, as both powers refrained from interfering in each other's territories.

(iii) Thirdly, the Treaty of Amritsar had long-term implications for the Sikh Empire. By accepting the British as the dominant power in India, the Sikhs lost the opportunity to expand their territories and increase their influence. This situation eventually led to the weakening of the Sikh Empire, as internal factions and political instability plagued the state after the death of Ranjit Singh. The weakened state of the Sikh Empire was eventually exploited by the British in the Anglo-Sikh Wars, culminating in the annexation of Punjab into British India in 1849.

In conclusion, the Treaty of Amritsar was significant not only for its immediate impact on the relationship between the British and the Sikh Empire but also for its potential effects on the political landscape of India. The treaty played a crucial role in preserving the balance of power in northern India and containing French influence. However, it also marked the beginning of the decline of the Sikh Empire, which ultimately paved the way for further British expansion in India.

(c) 'Famines were not just because of foodgrain scarcity, but were a direct result of colonial economic policies'.        (10 Marks)

Famines in colonial India were not just a result of foodgrain scarcity, but also a direct outcome of the colonial economic policies imposed by the British administration. These policies severely impacted the agrarian economy of India, resulting in various famines that claimed millions of lives during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

(i) One of the key aspects of colonial economic policy was the introduction of the land revenue system, particularly the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793) and the Ryotwari system in Madras and Bombay presidencies. These systems put immense pressure on cultivators, with high and inflexible revenue demands that forced them to focus on cash crops instead of food crops, leading to food shortages in times of drought and other natural calamities.

(ii) Another example is the colonial policy of free trade, which allowed the British to import cheap manufactured goods into India, decimating the domestic handicraft industries and pushing skilled laborers into agriculture. This further intensified the pressure on agricultural land and led to the overexploitation of resources, ultimately resulting in food scarcity.

(iii) Moreover, the colonial government prioritized the construction of railways, telegraphs, and irrigation works aimed at extracting resources from India and facilitating the export of cash crops. This infrastructure, instead of mitigating the effects of famines, often exacerbated them by facilitating the movement of foodgrains away from famine-affected areas to be exported for profit.

(iv) The British administration also failed to provide relief measures during famines, as evident in the Great Bengal Famine of 1770, the Deccan Famine of 1876-78, and the Bengal Famine of 1943. The colonial government was more concerned with maintaining law and order and revenue collection, rather than investing in relief works or implementing effective policies to tackle famines.
Furthermore, the drain of wealth from India to Britain, in the form of revenue, salaries, profits, and pensions, severely limited the resources available for investment in agriculture, infrastructure, and social welfare. This wealth drain, coupled with the exploitative economic policies, left India vulnerable to famines and other crises.

In conclusion, the famines that occurred during colonial rule in India were not just a result of foodgrain scarcity but were a direct outcome of the colonial economic policies that prioritized British interests over the welfare of the Indian population. These policies disrupted the traditional agrarian economy, forced India to focus on cash crops, and failed to provide adequate relief measures during times of crisis, ultimately resulting in devastating famines that claimed millions of lives.

(d) Penetration of outsiders- called dikus by the Santhals-completely destroyed their familiar world, and forced them into action to take possession of their lost territory'.      (10 Marks)

(i) The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56 was a crucial event in Indian history, as it was one of the first large-scale revolts by the indigenous people against British colonial rule and their local allies. The Santhals, a tribal community in Eastern India, primarily in the present-day states of West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Bihar, faced severe socio-economic and political exploitation by the dikus, the outsiders. The term 'dikus' referred to non-tribal people, including British officials, moneylenders, traders, and zamindars, who exploited the Santhals through land alienation, usurious money lending, and manipulation of the legal system.

(ii) With the expansion of British rule in India, the Santhals' traditional land and forest rights were severely threatened. The colonial administration's policies, such as the Permanent Settlement of 1793, the introduction of land revenue systems, and the increasing penetration of outsiders into their territories, led to the loss of their land and livelihood. The Santhals were forced to become tenants on their ancestral land, working as laborers or sharecroppers, and were subjected to high rents and taxes. The economic exploitation was further exacerbated by the moneylenders and traders, who charged exorbitant interest rates on loans and manipulated the Santhals through debt bondage.

(iii) The cultural impact of this exploitation cannot be understated, as the Santhals' way of life, their customs, rituals, and social organization, were disrupted by the dikus' influence. The Santhals had a strong sense of community and a deep attachment to their land, which they considered sacred. The loss of their land and the imposition of an alien administration and legal system were perceived as a direct attack on their identity and dignity.

(iv) The Santhal Rebellion was a desperate attempt by the community to reclaim their lost territory and restore their traditional way of life. The rebellion, led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, mobilized thousands of Santhals against the British and their local agents. The initial success of the rebellion, particularly the attack on the British military outpost in Kahalgaon, sent shockwaves through the colonial administration. However, the rebellion was eventually crushed by the British, who deployed a large military force and employed brutal tactics, such as the indiscriminate massacre of Santhal villages and the execution of the leaders.

(v) The Santhal Rebellion highlights the devastating impact of colonial policies and the penetration of outsiders on the lives of the indigenous people in India. It also underscores the resilience and determination of the tribal communities in the face of exploitation and oppression. The rebellion served as a precursor to other tribal revolts, such as the Birsa Munda Uprising of 1899-1900, and inspired the broader Indian struggle for independence.

(e) 'Within a limited scope the Indian Scientists could pursue original scientific research in colonial India'      (10 Marks)

In colonial India, Indian scientists had a limited scope for pursuing original scientific research due to various reasons such as lack of financial resources, inadequate infrastructure, and restrictions imposed by the British administration. However, despite these challenges, some Indian scientists managed to make significant contributions to the field of science, which had a lasting impact on the scientific community.

(i) One of the most prominent examples is Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, who made notable contributions in the fields of physics, biology, and plant physiology. He is best known for his work on the response of plants to environmental stimuli and the invention of the Crescograph, a device that measures plant growth. Bose also made pioneering contributions in the field of microwave optics and radio waves, which laid the foundation for the development of wireless communication technology.

(ii) Another example is Dr. C.V. Raman, the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930. His groundbreaking work in the field of light scattering, known as the Raman Effect, has had far-reaching implications in the fields of spectroscopy and molecular analysis. This discovery has been instrumental in understanding molecular structures and chemical compositions, with applications in various scientific disciplines such as chemistry, physics, and biology.

(iii) Furthermore, other Indian scientists like Meghnad Saha, Homi J. Bhabha, and S.N. Bose made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics, astrophysics, and quantum mechanics. Their research laid the foundation for India's nuclear program and contributed to the global understanding of various scientific phenomena.

(iv) However, these achievements were accomplished despite the constraints faced by Indian scientists under colonial rule. The British administration prioritized their economic interests and focused on the exploitation of India's resources rather than investing in scientific research and infrastructure. As a result, Indian scientists often had to rely on their personal resources to conduct research, which limited their scope and impact.

(v) Moreover, the British administration discouraged the pursuit of original scientific research by Indians, as they feared it could lead to the development of indigenous technology, which could challenge British dominance. Consequently, few opportunities were available for Indian scientists to collaborate with international scientific communities or gain exposure to cutting-edge research.

In conclusion, the scope of original scientific research in colonial India was indeed limited. However, the achievements of Indian scientists like Jagadish Chandra Bose, C.V. Raman, and others serve as a testament to their resilience and determination to advance scientific knowledge under challenging circumstances. These contributions laid the foundation for independent India's scientific and technological advancements, which continue to make a global impact today.

Q.2. Answer the following questions:

The Permanent Settlement, also known as the Zamindari System, was introduced in Bengal by the British East India Company in 1793 under the leadership of Lord Cornwallis. This system initiated a rule of property in Bengal, essentially transforming the relationship between the land, its cultivators, and the ruling power. The consequences of this system were significant and had long-lasting impacts on the socio-economic fabric of Bengal.

Under the Permanent Settlement, land was divided into large estates or Zamindaris, which were held by Zamindars or landlords. The Zamindars were granted permanent rights over their estates and were responsible for collecting land revenue from the cultivators or peasants. The revenue was fixed at a permanent rate, which was not to be changed in the future.

The initiation of a rule of property in Bengal through the Permanent Settlement had several consequences, both positive and negative:

1. Creation of a class of intermediaries: The Zamindars emerged as a class of intermediaries between the British government and the cultivators. They were not only responsible for collecting land revenue but also played a crucial role in maintaining law and order in their respective regions. This created a nexus between the colonial administration and the landed aristocracy, which further strengthened the British rule in Bengal.

2. Commercialization of agriculture: The Permanent Settlement encouraged commercialization of agriculture, as the Zamindars were interested in maximizing their profits. They introduced cash crops like indigo, jute, and cotton, which had high demand in the European markets. This led to a shift from subsistence farming to cash-crop farming, which had both positive and negative impacts on the rural economy.

3. Exploitation of cultivators: The system led to the exploitation of cultivators, as the Zamindars often used force and coercion to extract land revenue. The cultivators were subjected to high rates of rent, eviction, and other forms of harassment, which led to their impoverishment and indebtedness.

4. Fragmentation of landholdings: As the cultivators were unable to pay their rents, they often had to mortgage or sell their lands to the Zamindars. This led to the fragmentation of landholdings and the emergence of subinfeudation, where the land was divided into smaller plots, held by sub-zamindars or intermediaries. This further complicated the land revenue system and led to multiple layers of exploitation.

5. Decline of traditional village communities: The Permanent Settlement disrupted the traditional village communities in Bengal, as the village headmen and other local leaders lost their power and authority to the Zamindars. The social fabric and self-sufficiency of the villages were adversely affected, leading to their decline.

6. Impediments to agricultural growth: The Permanent Settlement acted as an impediment to agricultural growth, as the cultivators did not have any incentive to invest in land improvement or adopt new agricultural techniques. The fixed nature of land revenue also discouraged the Zamindars from investing in the development of their estates, leading to stagnant agricultural productivity.

7. Famines and food insecurity: The commercialization of agriculture and the emphasis on cash crops led to a decline in food grain production, which, coupled with the exploitative nature of the system, resulted in famines and food insecurity. The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 and the subsequent famines in the 19th century are examples of the devastating consequences of the Permanent Settlement on the agrarian society.

In conclusion, the Permanent Settlement initiated a rule of property in Bengal, which had far-reaching consequences on the socio-economic fabric of the region. While it helped consolidate the British rule and introduce a sense of commercialization in agriculture, it also led to exploitation, impoverishment, and food insecurity for the cultivators. The system's impact can be seen in the agrarian distress and social unrest that continued to plague Bengal even after the colonial rule ended.

(b) Was the Western education a harbinger of cultural awakening or an instrument of colonial hegemony? Discuss.      (20 Marks)

The Western education system, introduced during the colonial era, can be seen as both a harbinger of cultural awakening and an instrument of colonial hegemony. The impact of Western education on colonized societies was complex and multifaceted, leading to both positive and negative consequences. In this essay, we will discuss the various aspects of Western education and its influence on the colonized societies, with a specific focus on India as a case study.

(i) On the one hand, Western education played a significant role in the cultural awakening of the colonized societies. The introduction of Western education in India by the British was initially aimed at producing a class of Indians who would assist in the administration of the colony. This led to the establishment of several educational institutions, such as the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781, the Fort William College in 1800, and the Hindu College in 1817, which later became the Presidency College.

(ii) The exposure to Western education and ideas led to a renaissance among the educated Indian classes. Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule started questioning traditional practices and beliefs and advocated for social reform. They were influenced by Western ideas such as rationalism, humanism, and liberalism. The Western education system also played a crucial role in the development of modern Indian languages and literature by promoting translations of European works into Indian languages and encouraging the production of original works in these languages.

(iii) Furthermore, Western education provided the colonized people with the intellectual tools to challenge colonial rule. Indian nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai used their Western education to critique British policies and demand self-rule. Many leaders of the Indian independence movement, including Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, were educated in Western institutions and used their knowledge to articulate their vision for an independent India.

(iv) On the other hand, Western education can be seen as an instrument of colonial hegemony. It aimed to create a class of English-educated elites who would be loyal to the British Crown and perpetuate their rule. The British historian Thomas Macaulay, in his famous "Minute on Indian Education" (1835), argued for the creation of "a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect." This policy led to the marginalization and decline of traditional Indian educational institutions and knowledge systems.

(v) Moreover, the Western education system propagated a sense of cultural inferiority among the colonized people. European scholars like James Mill and Max Müller presented a distorted and often derogatory view of Indian history and culture, which was then taught to Indian students. This created a sense of inferiority and self-hatred among the educated Indians, who began to view their own culture as backward and uncivilized.

In conclusion, the Western education system in the colonized societies, particularly in India, can be seen as both a harbinger of cultural awakening and an instrument of colonial hegemony. While it led to social reform and the development of modern Indian languages and literature, it also propagated a sense of cultural inferiority and served as a tool to perpetuate colonial rule. The impact of Western education on colonized societies is complex and multifaceted, and its legacy continues to shape the intellectual and cultural landscape of these societies even after the end of colonial rule.

(c) Can you explain how, after acquiring Diwani, the government of the East India Company functioned like 'an Indian ruler'?      (10 Marks)

After acquiring Diwani rights in 1765, the East India Company assumed the responsibility of collecting revenue and administering justice in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This essentially meant that the Company had become the de facto ruler of these provinces, functioning much like an Indian ruler would have during that time. Here are some ways in which the government of the East India Company functioned like an Indian ruler:

1. Collection of revenue: As the Diwan, the Company was responsible for collecting land revenue, customs duties, and other taxes. The revenue system was similar to that followed by Indian rulers, with the use of local intermediaries such as zamindars and revenue collectors (such as amils) to facilitate the process.

2. Administration of justice: The Company established a dual system of administration, with separate courts for civil and criminal matters. The civil courts were called Diwani Adalats, while the criminal courts were called Faujdari Adalats. This setup resembled the judicial system under Indian rulers, where Qazi courts dealt with civil matters and Faujdari courts dealt with criminal cases.

3. Maintenance of law and order: The Company maintained a standing army and appointed Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, to serve in its ranks. This army was responsible for maintaining law and order in the Company's territories, much like the armies of Indian rulers.

4. Patronage of local elites: The Company, like Indian rulers, recognized the importance of maintaining good relations with local elites, such as zamindars and nawabs. They granted them certain privileges and rights, including the right to collect revenue on behalf of the Company, in return for their loyalty and support.

5. Maintenance of religious and cultural institutions: The Company, like Indian rulers, supported and maintained religious and cultural institutions, such as temples and mosques, in their territories. Although the Company was primarily a commercial enterprise, it understood the importance of upholding the religious and cultural traditions of the territories it governed.

6. Adoption of Indian customs and practices: Many British officers in the East India Company adopted Indian customs, traditions, and practices. They learned local languages, dressed in Indian attire, and some even married Indian women. This cultural assimilation helped the Company to govern its territories more effectively and maintain a semblance of continuity with the previous Indian rulers.

In conclusion, after acquiring Diwani rights, the East India Company's government functioned like an Indian ruler in several aspects, including revenue collection, administration of justice, maintenance of law and order, patronage of local elites, and support for religious and cultural institutions. This allowed the Company to exercise effective control over its territories and maintain stability in the region.

Q.3. Answer the following questions:

Yes, I believe that the Indian National Movement was a 'multi-class movement' that represented the anti-imperialist interests of all classes and strata of society. The following reasons and examples support this viewpoint:

1. Inclusive Leadership: The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, provided a platform for people from diverse social, economic, and religious backgrounds to come together and voice their concerns against British rule. Its leadership included representatives from various classes and strata such as Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Subhas Chandra Bose.

2. Regional Participation: The national movement was not confined to any particular region but spread across the length and breadth of the country, involving people from various regions and linguistic backgrounds. Regional movements such as the Non-Cooperation Movement in Bengal, the Civil Disobedience Movement in Tamil Nadu, and the Quit India Movement in Maharashtra exemplify the multi-class nature of the movement.

3. Peasant and Working-class Involvement: The Indian National Movement saw the active participation of peasants and workers, who played a crucial role in mobilizing support against the British rule. Movements like the Champaran Satyagraha, the Kheda Satyagraha, and the Ahmedabad Mill Strike showcased the involvement of the working class and peasantry in the struggle for independence.

4. Women’s Participation: Women from various classes and social backgrounds actively participated in the freedom struggle, breaking the traditional stereotypes of their role in society. Prominent women leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, and Aruna Asaf Ali played a significant role in the movement. Women participated in various protests, demonstrations, and also joined organizations like the All India Women's Conference to further the cause of independence.

5. Role of Students and Youth: Students and youth from diverse backgrounds actively participated in the freedom struggle. They joined organizations like the All India Students Federation and the All India Youth League, which played a vital role in mobilizing young people against foreign rule. The participation of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru in the revolutionary movement exemplifies the involvement of the youth in the freedom struggle.

6. Participation of Intellectuals and Professionals: The Indian National Movement saw the active involvement of intellectuals and professionals like lawyers, teachers, and journalists. They used their skills and expertise to spread awareness about the exploitative nature of colonial rule and mobilize support for the cause of independence. People like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal, among others, played a crucial role in this regard.

In conclusion, the Indian National Movement was a multi-class movement that represented the anti-imperialist interests of all classes and strata of society. The movement's success in mobilizing people from diverse backgrounds and regions against the British rule showcases its inclusiveness and broad-based appeal.

(b) The British rule had differential impact on the Indian Society. Describe in what ways, the Indians responded to the Revolt of 1857.      (20 Marks)

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, was a major turning point in Indian history. It was the first large-scale uprising against British rule in India and had a profound impact on Indian society. The response of Indians to the revolt was diverse, as different sections of society had different aspirations and grievances.

1. Nationalism and Unity: The Revolt of 1857 fostered a sense of nationalism among Indians. People from various regions, religions, and social backgrounds came together in their struggle against British rule. This unity was evident in the participation of both Hindus and Muslims in the revolt. For instance, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Kunwar Singh of Bihar emerged as prominent Hindu leaders, while Bahadur Shah Zafar and Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah were key Muslim figures in the rebellion.

2. Realization of British Exploitation: The revolt made Indians realize the extent of British exploitation and the need to end colonial rule. The introduction of British policies, such as the Doctrine of Lapse and the annexation of Indian territories, fueled discontent among Indian rulers and the general population. The revolt further exposed the British divide-and-rule policy, which aimed at creating rifts among different sections of Indian society.

3. Socio-religious Reforms: The aftermath of the revolt saw a resurgence of socio-religious reform movements in India. Organizations like the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, and the Aligarh Movement emerged to promote social and religious reforms, such as the eradication of caste discrimination, widow remarriage, and education for women. These movements aimed at revitalizing Indian society and culture, which had been adversely affected by British rule.

4. Emergence of the Indian National Congress: The Revolt of 1857 marked the beginning of organized political activity in India. The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, emerged as a platform for Indians to express their political aspirations and grievances against British rule. The Congress advocated for greater political representation and self-government for Indians.

5. Development of Armed Struggle: The Revolt of 1857 inspired several revolutionaries to take up arms against British rule. The establishment of secret societies, such as the Anushilan Samiti and the Abhinav Bharat, aimed at mobilizing Indians to fight for independence. Prominent revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Udham Singh were influenced by the events of 1857 and carried forward the struggle for India's freedom.

6. Impact on Indian Literature and Art: The Revolt of 1857 left a deep impact on Indian literature and art. Many poets, writers, and artists expressed their support for the cause of freedom and nationalism through their works. For example, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's 'Anandamath' and the song 'Vande Mataram' became symbols of defiance against British rule.

In conclusion, the Revolt of 1857 had a profound impact on Indian society as it brought about a sense of unity and nationalism, exposed British exploitation, led to the emergence of socio-religious reform movements, and inspired political and armed struggle against British rule. The response of Indians to the revolt was diverse, marked by a collective aspiration to free India from colonial rule and bring about social and political change.

(c) Analyse how the revolutionaries taught people self confidence and widened the social base of the freedom movement.      (10 Marks)

The revolutionaries played a crucial role in instilling self-confidence among the masses and widening the social base of the freedom movement in India. They were successful in spreading the message of independence and patriotism among different sections of society. Here are some ways in which they achieved these goals:

1. Challenging the notion of British invincibility: The revolutionaries were successful in challenging the myth of British invincibility. By carrying out daring attacks on British establishments, they demonstrated that it was possible to fight against the colonial rulers. For example, the Chittagong Armoury Raid in 1930, led by Surya Sen, showed that the Indian youth were not afraid to confront the British.

2. Propagating the idea of Swaraj: The revolutionaries were instrumental in spreading the concept of Swaraj or self-rule among the masses. They emphasized the importance of self-reliance and self-respect in the struggle for independence. For instance, the Ghadar Party, founded in 1913, aimed at securing India's independence from British rule through armed rebellion and propagating the idea of Swaraj.

3. Encouraging unity among different sections of society: The revolutionaries believed in the unity of all sections of society in the struggle for freedom. They made conscious efforts to include people from diverse social backgrounds in the freedom movement. For example, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru, who were executed for their revolutionary activities, belonged to different religious and social backgrounds.

4. Promoting women's participation in the freedom struggle: The revolutionaries encouraged women to participate in the freedom movement actively. Women revolutionaries like Kalpana Datta, Pritilata Waddedar, and Bina Das played a significant role in the struggle for independence. Their participation in the freedom movement inspired many other women to join the struggle and widened the social base of the movement.

5. Use of vernacular languages: The revolutionaries used vernacular languages to communicate their message to the masses. This helped in spreading the message of patriotism and self-confidence among the common people who were not well-versed in English. For instance, the Ghadar Party published its newspaper in multiple languages, including Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, and Gujarati, to reach out to a wider audience.

6. Establishment of revolutionary organizations: The revolutionaries formed various organizations to carry out their activities and involve more people in the freedom struggle. These organizations played a crucial role in mobilizing people from different sections of society. Some of these organizations include the Anushilan Samiti, the Abhinav Bharat Society, and the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).

7. Influence of socialist and communist ideologies: The revolutionaries were deeply influenced by socialist and communist ideologies. They believed in the idea of social equality and justice, which attracted many people from the lower strata of society to join the freedom movement. For example, Bhagat Singh and other members of the HSRA were influenced by the ideals of socialism and aimed at creating a socialist India.

In conclusion, the revolutionaries played a significant role in teaching self-confidence to the people and widening the social base of the freedom movement. Their actions and ideologies inspired many Indians from different sections of society to join the struggle for independence, ultimately leading to the end of British rule in India.

Q.4. Answer the following questions:

The early nationalists, also known as moderates, were a group of political leaders in India who emerged in the late 19th century. They played a significant role in laying the foundation for Indian nationalism and the struggle for independence. Their main objectives were to achieve political reforms, social and economic development, and a greater representation of Indians in the administration. Some prominent leaders of this group included Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee.

Policies and Programmes of the Early Nationalists:

1. Political Reforms: The early nationalists aimed to achieve political reforms such as a greater representation of Indians in the legislative councils, Indianization of the civil services, and decentralization of administration. They also demanded the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the introduction of civil liberties, and the establishment of representative government.

2. Economic Issues: The moderates focused on the economic development of India and fought against exploitative British economic policies. They demanded a reduction in land revenue, abolition of the salt tax, and more investment in agriculture and industries. They also advocated for the establishment of financial institutions to support Indian industries.

3. Social Reforms: The early nationalists sought to bring about social change in India by promoting modern education, advocating for the upliftment of women, and fighting against social evils such as caste discrimination and child marriage. They also supported the spread of the English language to facilitate communication with the British authorities and create a common platform for Indians.

4. Press and Public Opinion: The moderates believed that a free and vibrant press was essential for the growth of nationalism and public opinion in India. They demanded the abolition of the Vernacular Press Act, which allowed the British government to censor and control Indian language newspapers, and sought greater press freedom.

To what extent were they able to fulfill the aspirations of the people?

1. Achievements: The early nationalists were successful in creating awareness among Indians about their political rights and the exploitative nature of British rule. Their persistent demands led to some significant political reforms, such as the expansion of the legislative councils under the Indian Councils Act of 1892 and the introduction of the Indian Police Commission. They also contributed to the growth of Indian industries by promoting the establishment of financial institutions like the Punjab National Bank and the Tata Iron and Steel Company.

2. Limitations: Despite their efforts, the early nationalists were unable to achieve their broader objectives of self-government and complete independence for India. Their moderate methods of protests and petitions were seen as ineffective in the face of the British government's reluctance to make significant concessions. Furthermore, their focus on the English-educated elite limited their appeal among the masses, leading to the rise of more radical nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal.

In conclusion, the early nationalists (moderates) played a crucial role in laying the foundation for Indian nationalism and the struggle for independence. While they were able to achieve some political reforms and promote social and economic development, their moderate approach was unable to fulfill the broader aspirations of the Indian people for complete independence. The limitations of the moderates eventually led to the emergence of the more radical and revolutionary nationalists, who adopted a more assertive and confrontational approach towards the British government.

(b) In the light of contentions over the McMahon Line, analyse the India-China relations in the 1950s and 1960s.      (20 Marks)

The India-China relations in the 1950s and 1960s can be analysed in three distinct phases: the initial friendly relations, the deterioration of the relations, and the 1962 war.

1. Initial Friendly Relations (1950-1958)

(i) In the early years after India's independence, India and China enjoyed relatively friendly relations. India was one of the first countries to recognize the People's Republic of China in 1950. The two countries adopted the famous Panchsheel principles, which were based on mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.

(ii) During this period, India and China signed several significant agreements, such as the 1954 ‘Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India’ that included the recognition of the McMahon Line as the boundary between India and China.

2. Deterioration of Relations (1959-1962)

(i) The McMahon Line, which was the result of the 1914 Simla Convention between British India and Tibet, was a bone of contention between India and China. The Chinese government never officially accepted the McMahon Line and considered it an imperialist imposition.

(ii) The friendly relations between the two countries started to deteriorate in the late 1950s. The Dalai Lama's escape to India in 1959, following the Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule, further strained the relationship. India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama, which was perceived as interference in China's internal affairs.

(iii) Moreover, the 'Forward Policy' adopted by India in 1961, which aimed at establishing military posts along the McMahon Line, added to the tensions between the two countries. China viewed this policy as a hostile move and an infringement of its territorial sovereignty.

3. The 1962 War

(i) The tensions between India and China culminated in the 1962 war. China launched a surprise attack on India in October 1962, and the Indian army was caught unprepared. Within a month, the Chinese forces had occupied large parts of Indian territory in the eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh) and the western sector (Aksai Chin).

(ii) The war exposed the weaknesses in India's military and strategic planning. India suffered a humiliating defeat and was forced to accept China's terms for a ceasefire. The war led to a significant change in India's foreign policy, as it started developing closer ties with the United States and the Soviet Union.

In conclusion, the India-China relations in the 1950s and 1960s can be characterized as a shift from initial friendly relations to a period of strained ties, followed by a brief but significant war. The unresolved issue of the McMahon Line continues to be a source of tension between the two countries to this day. The lessons learnt from the 1962 war have led India to strengthen its military capabilities and adopt a more pragmatic foreign policy stance.

(c) How did the popular movements help us to understand the nature of environmental crisis in post-colonial India?      (10 Marks)

Popular movements in post-colonial India have played a significant role in highlighting the nature and extent of environmental crises in the country. These movements have helped us understand the complex interplay between ecological degradation, socio-economic disparities, and political power dynamics in the Indian context. Some of the key popular movements that have shaped our understanding of the environmental crisis in post-colonial India are:

1. Chipko Movement (1973): The Chipko Movement was a forest conservation movement in the state of Uttarakhand (then part of Uttar Pradesh) in which villagers, particularly women, embraced trees to prevent them from being cut down by commercial loggers. The movement highlighted the importance of local forest resources for the livelihood and sustenance of rural communities, as well as their cultural and spiritual significance. It also brought attention to the negative consequences of deforestation, such as soil erosion, landslides, and loss of biodiversity.

2. Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985): The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Movement) was a protest against the construction of large dams across the Narmada River, which would displace millions of people and submerge vast tracts of fertile land and forests. This movement helped us understand the environmental and social costs of large-scale developmental projects and questioned the sustainability and equity of such projects. It also emphasized the need for participatory decision-making and the rights of indigenous and marginalized communities in natural resource management.

3. Silent Valley Movement (1978): The Silent Valley Movement was an environmental movement in the state of Kerala that successfully prevented the construction of a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River, which would have submerged the unique Silent Valley rainforest ecosystem. This movement underscored the significance of preserving biodiversity and the ecological balance, as well as the need for environmentally-sensitive development planning.

4. Appiko Movement (1983): Inspired by the Chipko Movement, the Appiko Movement was a forest conservation movement in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka. The movement focused on protecting the region's rich biodiversity and the livelihoods of local communities. It highlighted the importance of community participation and the use of traditional knowledge and practices in sustainable resource management.

5. Plachimada Coca-Cola Struggle (2002): The Plachimada struggle was a grassroots movement against the Coca-Cola company in Kerala. The movement highlighted the issue of water scarcity and pollution caused by the excessive extraction of groundwater by the company, leading to the depletion of local aquifers and contamination of water sources. This movement emphasized the need for corporate accountability and responsible resource management.

These popular movements have helped us understand the nature of environmental crises in post-colonial India by shedding light on the various dimensions of ecological degradation and the socio-economic and political factors that contribute to it. They have also demonstrated the importance of community participation, local knowledge systems, and sustainable development practices in addressing environmental challenges.