UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: History Paper 1 (Section- B) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5.  Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : (10 x 5 = 50)

Indian feudalism can be broadly divided into three stages, which are Ancient, Early Medieval, and Late Medieval feudalism. Each stage had its own characteristics and left a profound impact on the Indian political system.

1. Ancient Feudalism (circa 600 BCE – 320 CE): The emergence of the Mahajanapadas and the rise of republics such as the Vajjis marked the beginning of feudalism in ancient India. In this period, the political power was decentralized, and the local chieftains or Rajas wielded significant authority. Land grants given to priests and officials became a prevalent practice. This stage of feudalism impacted the Indian political system by paving the way for the emergence of powerful regional kingdoms and the decline of tribal republics.

2. Early Medieval Feudalism (circa 320 CE – 1200 CE): This period started with the rise of the Gupta Empire, which is often considered the golden age of Indian history. During this time, the Indian feudal system became more complex with the emergence of intermediaries such as the Samantas, who were granted land in exchange for their loyalty and military support. As a result, the political power became more centralized, and the king's authority was reinforced. The impact of this stage on the Indian political system was the emergence of a strong monarchical rule which provided stability and facilitated the growth of cultural and intellectual achievements.

3. Late Medieval Feudalism (circa 1200 CE – 1700 CE): With the decline of the Gupta Empire and the invasion of the Muslim rulers, the Indian feudal system underwent significant changes. The Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire introduced a more centralized and bureaucratic political system. The practice of Jagirdari and Mansabdari became widespread, which further strengthened the feudal structure. During this period, the political power was concentrated in the hands of the ruling dynasty, and the local chieftains had limited autonomy. The impact of this stage on the Indian political system was the establishment of a strong centralized administration, which facilitated the expansion of the empire and the development of a syncretic culture.

In conclusion, the different stages of Indian feudalism had a profound impact on the Indian political system. From the decentralization of power in the ancient period to the centralization of power during the early and late medieval periods, Indian feudalism played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of the country. The feudal system also facilitated the growth of regional kingdoms, encouraged cultural exchange, and contributed to the overall development of the Indian subcontinent.

(b) Do you consider Sultan Iltutmish to be the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate? Discuss.      (10 Marks)

Sultan Iltutmish, also known as Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish, is often considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate due to his significant contributions to the consolidation and expansion of the empire. Although Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave, established the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, it was Iltutmish who strengthened the empire and laid the foundation for its future growth.

(i) Iltutmish was able to consolidate the territories that were captured by his predecessor and expanded the empire further. He successfully defended the Delhi Sultanate from the invasions of the Khwarazmian Empire and the Mongols, thereby ensuring its survival in a turbulent geopolitical environment.

(ii) Moreover, Iltutmish established a centralized administration, which allowed for efficient governance of the empire. He introduced the system of Iqta, a form of revenue assignment to his nobles and officials, which ensured their loyalty and fostered a sense of unity within the empire.

(iii) One of the most significant achievements of Iltutmish was his recognition by the Abbasid Caliphate, which bestowed upon him the title of Sultan. This recognition provided legitimacy to the Delhi Sultanate and helped to strengthen its position in the Islamic world.

(iv) In addition to his military and administrative achievements, Iltutmish was also a patron of art and architecture. He commissioned several monuments, such as the Qutb Minar, which remains one of the most iconic structures in India, and the expansion of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque. These architectural marvels not only showcased the wealth and power of the Delhi Sultanate but also served as symbols of the empire's cultural achievements.

(v) Furthermore, Iltutmish established a stable currency system based on silver tanka and copper jital, which facilitated trade and commerce in the empire. He also promoted education, built schools and madrasas, and encouraged scholars, poets, and theologians to settle in Delhi.

To sum up, Sultan Iltutmish played a pivotal role in laying the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate by consolidating its territories, establishing a centralized administration, and gaining recognition from the Islamic world. His military, administrative, and cultural achievements make him a prominent figure in Indian history and justify the argument that he can be considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

(c) Identify the different categories of Persian literature which emerged during the Delhi Sultanate.      (10 Marks)

During the Delhi Sultanate period (1206-1526 CE), Persian literature flourished in India, as it was the official language of the various ruling dynasties. The influence of Persian language and culture led to the emergence of several categories of Persian literature. Some of the main categories that developed during this period are:

1. Historiography: The court historians and chroniclers documented the events, achievements, and policies of the Delhi Sultans. Important historical works from this period include Ziauddin Barani's Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, Minhaj-i-Siraj's Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Amir Khusrau's Khazain-ul-Futuh, and Shams-i-Siraj Afif's Tarikh-i-Firozshahi.

2. Poetry: Persian poetry thrived during the Delhi Sultanate, as poets composed ghazals, masnavis, rubaiyat, and qasidas. The poet laureate of the Delhi Sultanate, Amir Khusrau, is known for his romantic masnavis, such as Laila-Majnun, Khamsa-e-Nizami, and Hasht-Bihisht. Other notable poets include Masud Sa'd Salman, Abdul Qadir Bedil, and Anvari.

3. Sufi Literature: The Delhi Sultanate period witnessed the growth of Sufism, and many Sufi saints and mystics contributed to Persian literature. Works on Sufism and mysticism include the Malfuzat (sayings) of Nizamuddin Auliya, the Fawa'id al-Fu'ad of Amir Hasan Sijzi, the Siyar-ul-Auliya by Mir Khurd, and the Akhbar-ul-Akhyar by Abdul-Haqq Dihlawi.

4. Travelogues: As the Delhi Sultanate expanded, travel and exploration became popular themes in Persian literature. The famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta wrote his travelogue Rihla, which provides valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural life of the Delhi Sultanate.

5. Translations and Adaptations: Many Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a part of the efforts to assimilate Indian knowledge and culture. Alberuni's Kitab-ul-Hind, which is an encyclopedic work on Indian sciences, is a notable example. The Persian translation of the Panchatantra, called the Anwar-i-Suhaili by Kashefi, also gained popularity during this period.

In conclusion, the Delhi Sultanate period saw a rich development of Persian literature in various categories such as historiography, poetry, Sufi literature, travelogues, and translations. These works not only contributed to the growth of Persian literature but also enriched the cultural heritage of India by promoting intellectual exchanges and interactions between different traditions.

(d) Examine the causes of Babur's success against Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.      (10 Marks)

The First Battle of Panipat, fought on April 21, 1526, was a significant event in Indian history as it marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India. The battle was fought between the forces of Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, and Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur emerged victorious in this battle, and there were several factors that contributed to his success.

1. Superior Military Tactics: Babur was well-versed in the art of war and employed innovative military tactics in the battle. He introduced the concept of Tulughma, which involved dividing his forces into three parts: the center and two wings. This allowed his forces to encircle the enemy and attack them from multiple fronts. Moreover, Babur used carts tied with a rope as a defensive wall, which provided protection to his artillery and infantry.

2. Advanced Artillery: Babur's forces were equipped with advanced artillery, including cannons and matchlock muskets, which gave them a significant advantage over Ibrahim Lodi's forces that primarily relied on traditional weapons like swords, bows, and arrows. The use of artillery helped Babur's forces to break the enemy's frontline and penetrate their defenses.

3. Efficient Leadership: Babur's leadership skills were another key factor in his success. He was able to inspire and motivate his soldiers to fight with determination and zeal. On the other hand, Ibrahim Lodi failed to effectively lead his forces, which resulted in confusion and disarray among his troops during the battle.

4. Disunity among Indian Forces: The Indian forces were not united, and there were internal divisions among the nobles and regional powers. Many nobles resented Ibrahim Lodi's autocratic rule and did not support him wholeheartedly in the battle. This lack of unity among Indian forces made it easier for Babur to defeat them.

5. Timely Reinforcements: Babur received timely reinforcements from his allies, which boosted the morale of his forces and provided them with valuable resources. These reinforcements played a crucial role in turning the tide of the battle in Babur's favor.

In conclusion, Babur's success against Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat can be attributed to his superior military tactics, advanced weaponry, efficient leadership, disunity among Indian forces, and timely reinforcements from his allies. This victory laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India, which would go on to rule the subcontinent for over three centuries.

(e) Discuss the attitude of Chishti saints towards the state. How were the Suhrawardi saints different in their attitude towards the government?      (10 Marks)

(i) The Chishti saints were a group of Sufi mystics who originated in Chisht, a small town near Herat in present-day Afghanistan, in the 12th century. They were known for their focus on spiritual development, social service, and their disregard for material wealth. The Chishti saints had a distinct attitude towards the state, which was characterized by their detachment from political power and their refusal to accept any patronage from rulers or the wealthy elite.

(ii) The Chishti saints believed in maintaining a distance from the state, as they felt that political power and material wealth could corrupt their spiritual mission. They emphasized on the need to remain independent of the state and its institutions to preserve the purity of their faith. For instance, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, the founder of the Chishti order in India, was known for his refusal to accept any gifts or patronage from the rulers of his time. He even declined the invitation to visit the court of Sultan Iltutmish, as he wanted to avoid any association with the ruling elite.

(iii) In contrast, the Suhrawardi saints, another prominent Sufi order, had a different attitude towards the state. Founded by Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, the Suhrawardi order believed in engaging with the state and its institutions to bring about social and moral reforms. They considered it their duty to guide the rulers and the elite towards the path of righteousness and justice. Unlike the Chishti saints, the Suhrawardi saints were more amenable to accepting patronage from the state, as they believed that this would allow them to influence the government and help in the betterment of society.

(iv) The Suhrawardi saints often served as advisors to various rulers, and their close association with the state enabled them to have a significant impact on the political and social landscape of the time. For instance, Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariyya, a prominent Suhrawardi saint, played an influential role at the court of Sultan Iltutmish and later served as a mentor to his successor, Rukn al-Din Firuz.

In conclusion, the Chishti saints and the Suhrawardi saints had contrasting attitudes towards the state, with the former maintaining a distance from political power, while the latter engaging with the state to bring about social and moral reforms. This difference in approach stemmed from their respective beliefs regarding the role of Sufi mystics in society and the potential impact of political power on their spiritual mission.

Q.6. Answer the following:

The Sikh community has undergone a significant transformation since its inception in the 15th century. It began as a spiritual movement called Nirguna Bhakti, which emphasized devotion to a formless and attribute-less God. However, over time, the Sikh community evolved into a politico-military organization due to various historical and socio-political factors. This transformation can be traced through the lives of the Sikh Gurus and the historical events that occurred during their times.

1. Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539): The founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak Dev, was a strong advocate of Nirguna Bhakti. He promoted the idea of a formless and omnipresent God, rejecting idol worship and the caste system. Guru Nanak's teachings were based on the principles of equality, social justice, and community service.

2. Guru Angad Dev (1504-1552) and Guru Amar Das (1479-1574): The second and third Sikh Gurus continued the teachings of Guru Nanak, focusing on spirituality and social reform. They established institutions like langar (community kitchen) and pangat (sitting together irrespective of caste) to promote equality and social harmony among people.

3. Guru Ram Das (1534-1581): The fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das, founded the city of Amritsar and laid the foundation of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple). He continued the spiritual and social teachings of the previous Gurus, but also began to establish a distinct religious and social identity for the Sikh community.

4. Guru Arjan Dev (1563-1606): The fifth Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, further consolidated the Sikh community by compiling the Adi Granth (now Guru Granth Sahib), the sacred scripture of the Sikhs. However, his growing influence and the compilation of the Adi Granth led to tensions with the Mughal rulers. Guru Arjan Dev was arrested and executed by Emperor Jahangir, marking the beginning of the Sikh community's transformation into a politico-military organization.

5. Guru Hargobind (1595-1644): The sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind, initiated the process of militarization of the Sikh community. He introduced the concept of Miri-Piri (temporal and spiritual authority) and wore two swords to symbolize this dual authority. Guru Hargobind raised an army, built a fort in Amritsar called Lohgarh, and fought several battles against the Mughal forces.

6. Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708): The tenth and the last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, further strengthened the military aspect of the Sikh community. He established the Khalsa (the pure ones) in 1699, a group of baptized Sikhs committed to defending their faith and community. Guru Gobind Singh also introduced the Five Ks (Kesh, Kara, Kachera, Kirpan, and Kangha) as symbols of the Khalsa identity. He fought several battles against the Mughals and regional rulers, and his struggle laid the foundation for the establishment of the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the 19th century.

In conclusion, the transformation of the Sikh community from a Nirguna Bhakti sect into a politico-military organization was a gradual process that occurred due to various historical and socio-political factors. The persecution of the Sikh Gurus by the Mughal rulers, the need to protect their faith and community, and the influence of the Gurus in shaping the Sikh identity all contributed to this transformation. The Sikhs, initially a spiritual movement, evolved into a formidable politico-military force that played a significant role in the history of India.

(b) Give your assessment of Bahlul Lodi's relation with his nobility.      (15 Marks)

Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and ruled over the Delhi Sultanate. His relations with his nobility can be characterized as a delicate balance between maintaining authority and ensuring loyalty. This assessment can be made based on the following aspects:

1. Descentralization of power: Bahlul Lodi maintained a decentralized system of administration, giving considerable powers to his nobles. This system allowed the nobles to manage their respective territories with a certain degree of autonomy, which helped in ensuring their loyalty to the sultan.

2. Granting of iqtas: Bahlul Lodi followed the iqta system, where lands were assigned to the nobles as a source of income. This system helped in maintaining a balance of power and ensuring the loyalty of the nobles, as they were dependent on the sultan for their income.

3. Military support: Bahlul Lodi sought the support of his nobles during his military campaigns. He ensured their participation in his conquests, which helped in strengthening their loyalty to the sultan and his cause.

4. Tribal affiliations: Bahlul Lodi belonged to the Pashtun tribe, and he relied on his tribal affiliations to maintain his rule. He appointed fellow tribesmen to important positions, which helped in consolidating his power and ensuring the loyalty of his nobles.

5. Diplomacy: Bahlul Lodi was known for his diplomatic skills, which he used to maintain good relations with his nobles. He often made alliances with powerful nobles, which not only strengthened his position but also kept potential rivals in check.

6. Favoritism and patronage: On the flip side, Bahlul Lodi was also known for being partial towards certain nobles and granting them undue favors. This created resentment among other nobles, which eventually led to factionalism and internal strife within the court.

In conclusion, Bahlul Lodi's relation with his nobility can be seen as a mixed bag. On one hand, he was successful in maintaining their loyalty through decentralization of power, granting of iqtas, military support, tribal affiliations, and diplomacy. On the other hand, his favoritism and patronage created discontent and factionalism among the nobles. This delicate balance was crucial in ensuring the stability of his rule and the survival of the Lodi dynasty.

(c) Examine the basic features of Mughal tomb architecture with special reference to the Taj Mahal.      (15 Marks)

Mughal tomb architecture, which flourished in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal Empire (1526-1858), was characterized by its grandeur, opulence, and intricate designs. The Taj Mahal, built by Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, is the finest example of Mughal tomb architecture and is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. The main features of Mughal tomb architecture, with special reference to the Taj Mahal, are as follows:

1. Mausoleum: The main feature of Mughal tomb architecture is the mausoleum, a large and elaborately decorated tomb that houses the cenotaphs of the deceased. The Taj Mahal's main structure is a white marble mausoleum with a central chamber containing the cenotaphs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal.

2. Charbagh Layout: Mughal tomb architecture is characterized by the charbagh (four gardens) layout, which represents the Islamic concept of Paradise. The Taj Mahal is set within a sprawling charbagh garden, divided into four equal quadrants by water channels and walkways.

3. Minarets: Tall and slender minarets (towers) are a common feature of Mughal tomb architecture. The Taj Mahal is flanked by four 40-meter-high minarets, which not only enhance the visual appeal of the monument but also serve as a means of proportioning the massive central structure.

4. Iwan: The iwan, a large arched entrance, is another characteristic feature of Mughal tomb architecture. The entrance to the Taj Mahal is through an impressive iwan, adorned with calligraphy, floral patterns, and geometric designs.

5. Dome: Mughal tomb architecture is known for its use of elaborate domes. The central structure of the Taj Mahal is crowned by a massive double dome, which is approximately 35 meters high. The outer dome is bulbous in shape, while the inner dome provides the ceiling to the cenotaph chamber.

6. Pietra Dura: Mughal tomb architecture is also characterized by the extensive use of pietra dura, a technique of inlaying semi-precious stones into marble. The walls of the Taj Mahal are adorned with intricate pietra dura work, featuring floral and geometric designs, as well as calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran.

7. Symmetry: Symmetry and balance are essential elements of Mughal tomb architecture. The Taj Mahal is a perfect example of this, with its meticulously symmetrical layout and design. The central structure, minarets, and surrounding buildings are all perfectly aligned and harmonious.

8. Use of White Marble: Mughal tomb architecture often featured the use of white marble, which symbolized purity and elegance. The Taj Mahal is entirely constructed of white marble, which gives it a unique and ethereal quality

9. Water Features: Water features, such as pools, fountains, and channels, are an integral part of Mughal tomb architecture, representing the rivers of Paradise. The Taj Mahal has a long reflecting pool, which beautifully mirrors the image of the mausoleum, as well as a series of water channels that run through the gardens.

In conclusion, Mughal tomb architecture, exemplified by the Taj Mahal, is characterized by its grandeur, symmetrical layout, intricate designs, and the use of white marble. These structures represent the zenith of architectural achievement during the Mughal Empire and continue to inspire awe and admiration to this day.

Q.7. Answer the following:

The Iqta system was a critical administrative innovation during the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) that played a pivotal role in centralizing the administration and consolidating the power of the ruling dynasty. The term "Iqta" refers to a land grant or revenue assignment given to a noble or military officer in lieu of salary or other remuneration. This system provided the much-needed revenue and resources for the state as well as facilitated the efficient management of the vast territories under its control.

The importance of the Iqta system can be understood through the following points:

1. Resource Mobilization: The Iqta system played a significant role in the mobilization of resources for the state. The revenue collected from the Iqta lands helped the state to finance its military and administrative expenses. In this way, the system ensured the availability of the necessary resources for the maintenance and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate.

2. Military Recruitment and Maintenance: The Iqta system was primarily a military assignment given to the officers and soldiers. It provided the necessary financial resources for the recruitment, maintenance, and payment of the soldiers. This system helped in building a strong and efficient military force, which was essential for the protection and expansion of the empire.

3. Administrative Efficiency: The Iqta system allowed the central government to delegate the responsibility of administration to the Iqta holders, who were responsible for the maintenance of law and order and the collection of revenue within their respective territories. This not only increased the administrative efficiency of the state but also reduced the burden on the central government.

4. Checks and Balances: The Iqta system also provided checks and balances on the power of the Iqta holders. The central government could transfer, dismiss, or punish the Iqta holders if they failed to fulfill their responsibilities or indulged in any misconduct. This ensured the loyalty of the Iqta holders to the central authority and prevented any potential threats to the stability of the state.

5. Integration of Conquered Territories: The Iqta system played a crucial role in the integration of the newly conquered territories into the Delhi Sultanate. The assignment of Iqtas to the local chiefs and nobles allowed the ruling dynasty to win their loyalty and support, which facilitated the smooth integration of these territories into the empire.

6. Cultural Assimilation: The Iqta system also facilitated cultural assimilation between the ruling elite and the local population. The Iqta holders, who were mostly Muslims, would often interact with the local Hindu population, leading to an exchange of ideas, customs, and traditions. This helped to bridge the cultural divide between the Muslims and the Hindus and promoted a sense of unity and harmony within the empire.

In conclusion, the Iqta system was instrumental in the centralization of the administration of the Delhi Sultanate by providing the necessary resources, ensuring military and administrative efficiency, maintaining checks and balances, and facilitating the integration of conquered territories. The system also played a significant role in promoting cultural assimilation and harmony within the empire. As a result, the Iqta system greatly contributed to the stability, expansion, and prosperity of the Delhi Sultanate during its golden age.

(b) Why is the reign of the Khaljis known as the 'Khalji Revolution'?      (15 Marks)

The reign of the Khaljis is known as the 'Khalji Revolution' primarily because it brought significant and far-reaching changes in various spheres of life, such as administration, socio-economic conditions, military organization, and cultural patterns in India during that period. The term 'Khalji Revolution' was coined by historians to describe these transformative changes that occurred during the reign of the Khalji dynasty (1290-1320 CE), particularly under the rule of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 CE). Some of the key aspects of the Khalji Revolution are:

1. Administrative Reforms: Alauddin Khalji brought several changes in the administration, such as centralizing the power in the hands of the sultan, improving revenue collection, and introducing the system of branding horses and maintaining descriptive rolls of soldiers. He also established a separate department for intelligence and espionage, which helped him in maintaining law and order.

2. Military Reforms: The Khaljis introduced several military reforms, such as maintaining a large standing army, paying soldiers in cash, and establishing a strict discipline within the army. Alauddin Khalji successfully repelled the Mongol invasions and expanded the territorial boundaries of his empire by conquering Gujarat, Ranthambore, Chittorgarh, and Deccan.

3. Economic Reforms: Alauddin Khalji introduced various economic reforms, such as fixing the prices of essential commodities, regulating the market, and controlling the activities of merchants and traders. He also introduced land reforms, such as the measurement of land, improving the land revenue system, and encouraging the cultivation of wasteland.

4. Social Reforms: The Khalji rule brought a significant change in the social hierarchy, as they gave importance to the lower castes and tribes, promoting them to higher positions in the administration. They also discouraged the practice of sati, and Alauddin Khalji banned the consumption of alcohol and intoxicants.

5. Cultural Impact: The Khalji period witnessed the development of Persian literature, art, and architecture. They patronized scholars, poets, and artists who contributed to the enrichment of Indo-Persian culture. The famous Alai Darwaza, the gateway to the Qutub complex in Delhi, is an example of the architectural achievements during the Khalji period.

In conclusion, the term 'Khalji Revolution' is used to describe the transformative changes that occurred during the reign of the Khalji dynasty, particularly under Alauddin Khalji. These changes in administration, military organization, socio-economic conditions, and cultural patterns significantly impacted India during that period and laid the foundations for the future development of the Delhi Sultanate.

(c) The late seventeenth century Mughal India is considered to be a period of Jagirdari crisis. Discuss.      (15 Marks)

The late seventeenth century Mughal India, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707), witnessed a severe crisis in the Jagirdari system, which was one of the primary causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Jagirdari system was an essential part of the Mughal administration, where land was assigned to the nobles and officials (jagirdars) as a source of their income in return for their loyalty and services to the empire.

Several factors contributed to the Jagirdari crisis during the late seventeenth century, which can be discussed as follows:

1. Financial Crisis: The prolonged wars of Aurangzeb, especially the Deccan campaigns, put a severe strain on the Mughal treasury. The constant warfare resulted in increased military expenses, which led to a lack of resources to pay and maintain the jagirdars adequately. This eventually led to discontent among the jagirdars, who were already facing a decline in their income due to shrinking land revenue and increasing corruption.

2. Excessive Number of Jagirdars: The Mughal Empire expanded significantly during the reign of Aurangzeb. As a result, there was an increase in the number of jagirdars, who were appointed to govern the newly conquered territories. This expansion led to the fragmentation of jagirs, which in turn reduced the income of individual jagirdars. Consequently, many jagirdars were unable to maintain their status and fulfill their obligations to the state.

3. Inefficient Revenue Collection: The revenue collection system during the later Mughal period became increasingly inefficient due to corruption and mismanagement. The local revenue collectors often exploited the peasants and manipulated the revenue records to their advantage. This resulted in a decline in agricultural production and land revenue, further aggravating the jagirdari crisis.

4. Loss of Local Autonomy: The Mughal centralization policy during Aurangzeb's reign undermined the local autonomy of the jagirdars, who were earlier enjoying a certain degree of independence in their administrative and military affairs. This increased centralization led to resentment among the jagirdars, who perceived it as an infringement of their traditional rights and privileges.

5. Discrimination against Non-Muslim Jagirdars: Aurangzeb's policies were heavily influenced by his orthodox religious views, which led to discrimination against non-Muslim jagirdars. The imposition of jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and the destruction of Hindu temples created a sense of alienation among the Hindu jagirdars and resulted in a decline in their loyalty to the Mughal state.

6. Rise of Regional Powers: The weakening of the Mughal power during the late seventeenth century provided an opportunity for the emergence of regional powers such as the Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, and Jats. These regional powers challenged the authority of the Mughal state and further contributed to the Jagirdari crisis by disrupting the Mughal administration and revenue collection in their respective regions.

In conclusion, the Jagirdari crisis during the late seventeenth-century Mughal India was a result of a combination of factors, including the financial crisis, inefficient revenue collection, excessive number of jagirdars, loss of local autonomy, discrimination against non-Muslim jagirdars, and the rise of regional powers. This crisis significantly weakened the Mughal state's administrative structure, leading to its eventual decline and disintegration in the eighteenth century.

Q.8. Answer the following:

The Chola dynasty, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in South India, ruled over the Tamil region from the 9th century to the 13th century. They were indeed mighty conquerors and efficient administrators, but their most significant contribution to Indian history lies in their patronage of art and architecture, particularly the construction of fine temples.

1. Architectural Marvels: The Chola rulers built numerous temples that showcased the Dravidian style of architecture. These temples were not only religious centers but also served as hubs for social, economic, and cultural activities. Some of the most famous Chola temples include the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram, and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple. These temples are now recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, known as the "Great Living Chola Temples."

2. Brihadeeswarar Temple: Built by Raja Raja Chola I in the 11th century, the Brihadeeswarar Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is an outstanding example of Chola architecture, featuring a soaring vimana (temple tower), intricate carvings, and detailed frescoes. The temple's 216-feet-tall vimana is one of the tallest in the world and is topped with an 80-ton granite monolith. This massive structure was constructed using an inclined plane, showcasing the Chola's advanced engineering and architectural skills.

3. Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple: Built by Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple was intended to surpass the grandeur of the Brihadeeswarar Temple. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and features a similar architectural style, with a slightly smaller vimana and more elaborate sculptures. The temple's intricately carved panels depict scenes from Hindu mythology, showcasing the Chola's dedication to promoting their religious beliefs and artistic talent.

4. Airavatesvara Temple: The Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram, built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century, is another fine example of Chola architecture. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and features intricate carvings detailing the lives of the 63 Nayanmars (Saivite saints). The temple also includes a unique musical staircase that produces different musical notes when tapped, showcasing the Chola's knowledge of acoustics and their love for music and the arts.

5. Bronze Sculptures: The Chola rulers were also renowned for their exquisite bronze sculptures, which were often housed in the temples they built. These sculptures, known as Chola bronzes, were made using the lost-wax casting technique and are celebrated for their beauty, grace, and intricate detailing. Some of the most famous Chola bronzes include the Nataraja (dancing Shiva), Ardhanarishvara (half male, half female form of Shiva), and various forms of Parvati, the consort of Shiva.

In conclusion, the Chola rulers' contributions to temple architecture and art have left an indelible mark on Indian history. Their temples are not only a testament to their religious devotion but also showcase their advanced engineering, artistic talents, and efficient administration. The Chola temples continue to stand as a symbol of the architectural and cultural achievements of the Chola dynasty and are a source of pride and inspiration for present-day India.

(b) Discuss with relevant illustrations the relations between Akbar and the Rajput states.      (15 Marks)

The Rajput states were powerful and influential kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent during the medieval period. The Mughal emperor, Akbar, realized the importance of establishing friendly relations with the Rajput states to consolidate and expand his empire. The relationship between Akbar and the Rajput states was marked by mutual respect, cooperation, and often, strategic alliances. Akbar's policy towards the Rajputs was characterized by a combination of diplomacy, matrimonial alliances, and military conquests.

1. Diplomacy and Matrimonial Alliances: Akbar understood the importance of diplomacy in building a strong and united empire. He entered into matrimonial alliances with several Rajput rulers to strengthen his relationship with them. One significant example is his marriage to Harkha Bai or Jodha Bai, the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber (later known as Jaipur). This alliance not only secured the loyalty of the Amber state but also set a precedent for other Rajput rulers to enter into similar alliances with the Mughals. Akbar also married the daughters of several other Rajput rulers, such as Raja Bhupat Rai of Dungarpur, Raja Ram Chandra of Bikaner, and Raja Rawat Singh of Jaisalmer.

2. Granting High Positions and Mansabs: Akbar was generous in granting high positions and mansabs (ranks) to Rajput chiefs in his court. He believed in rewarding their loyalty and valour. This policy was beneficial for both the Mughals and the Rajputs. The Rajputs gained power, status, and wealth in the Mughal court, while their presence added to the strength and stability of the Mughal Empire. For example, Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber was given the title of 'Mirza Raja' and was appointed as the governor of Punjab. Raja Man Singh, Bhagwant Das's successor, was also given a high mansab and made the governor of Bihar and Bengal. Additionally, Raja Todar Mal, a Khatri Rajput, was given an important position in the Mughal administration and was appointed as Akbar's finance minister.

3. Military Conquests: Although Akbar had a policy of diplomacy and friendly relations with the Rajputs, he did not hesitate to use military force when necessary. However, military conquests were often followed by reconciliation and the establishment of friendly relations. For example, Akbar conquered the kingdom of Mewar and captured the fortress of Chittorgarh in 1567. Despite his victory, Akbar treated the defeated Rajputs with respect and later entered into a friendly alliance with Raja Udai Singh, the ruler of Mewar.

4. Religious Tolerance: Akbar's policy of religious tolerance and his efforts to promote mutual understanding and respect among different religious communities also played a significant role in his relations with the Rajputs. Most Rajputs were Hindus, and Akbar's policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace with all) was instrumental in winning their support and allegiance. He abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims, encouraged inter-religious dialogue, and participated in Hindu festivals. This approach helped in fostering a sense of unity and loyalty among the Rajputs towards the Mughal Empire.

5. Conflicts with Rajputs: Despite Akbar's policy of diplomacy and friendly relations with the Rajputs, there were instances of conflicts and rebellions. One notable example is the rebellion of Raja Ram Chandra of Bikaner, who initially supported Akbar but later turned against him. However, such incidents were relatively rare, and the overall relations between Akbar and the Rajput states remained largely cordial and cooperative.

In conclusion, Akbar's relations with the Rajput states were marked by a combination of diplomacy, matrimonial alliances, military conquests, and religious tolerance. His policy towards the Rajputs was instrumental in consolidating and expanding the Mughal Empire and laid the foundation for a more stable and powerful empire under his successors. The Rajputs played a crucial role in the Mughal administration, military, and court, contributing to the empire's growth and prosperity.

(c) How far is it justified to consider the states like Bengal, Awadh and Hyderabad as 'successor states' of the Mughal state?      (15 Marks)

It is justified to consider the states like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad as 'successor states' of the Mughal state to some extent, as they emerged from the decline of the Mughal Empire and carried forward some of its administrative, cultural, and political practices. However, these states also acquired distinct features and evolved considerably, making them unique in their own right.

1. Administrative practices: The successor states inherited the Mughal administrative system, including the division of the empire into provinces, districts, and parganas. The revenue administration, based on the system of mansabdari and jagirdari, was also adopted by these states. However, they made modifications to suit their local conditions and requirements. For example, in Bengal, the hereditary revenue collectors called zamindars grew in power and influence.

2. Cultural continuity: The states of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad continued the Mughal patronage of arts, architecture, and literature. For instance, Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, was a great patron of music and dance, and his court became a prominent center of Hindustani classical music. Similarly, the Nizams of Hyderabad patronized the art of miniature painting and built magnificent palaces and mosques, such as the Chowmahalla Palace and Mecca Masjid.

3. Political alliances: The successor states maintained diplomatic relations with the Mughal court and sought its recognition and legitimacy. Many rulers of these states adopted titles like 'Nawab' and 'Nizam' to assert their status as the Mughal Empire's representatives. However, they pursued independent foreign policies and forged alliances with other regional powers and European companies to safeguard their interests.

4. Military organization: The successor states adopted the Mughal military organization, including the mansabdari system, which determined the rank and responsibilities of military officers. They also learned from the Mughals' experiences and modernized their armies by incorporating European techniques and equipment, as seen in the case of Bengal's army under Siraj-ud-Daulah and the Hyderabad army under Nizam Ali Khan.

5. Evolution and distinctiveness: Despite these continuities, the states of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad evolved over time and acquired distinct features. Bengal became a major center of maritime trade and commerce, attracting European companies and fostering a dynamic economy. Awadh emerged as a center of Indo-Muslim culture, with Lucknow becoming a hub of poetry, music, and dance. Hyderabad developed a unique Deccani culture, synthesizing the traditions of North India, South India, and Iran.

In conclusion, it is fair to consider the states like Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad as 'successor states' of the Mughal state due to the continuities in administration, culture, and politics. However, these states also evolved and developed their own unique identities, making them more than mere extensions of the Mughal Empire.