UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Geography Paper 2 (Section- A) | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Section 'A'

Q.1. Answer the following:

(a). On the outline map of India provided to you, mark the location of all the following. Write in your QCA Booklet the significance of these locations whether physical / commercial / economic / ecological / environmental / cultural, in not more than 30 words for each entry.

(i) Tarangambadi
(ii) Mahe
(iii) Bomdila
(iv) Dhola Sadiya Bridge
(v) Talakaveri
(vi) Satkosia
(vii) Dholavira
(viii) Sonamarg
(ix) Maliku Atoll
(x) Gangasagar

Significance of the mentioned locations:

(i) Tarangambadi: Also known as Tranquebar, it is a coastal town in Tamil Nadu, known for its cultural significance as a Danish trading post in the 17th century. The Dansborg Fort is a popular tourist attraction.

(ii) Mahe: A small coastal town in Puducherry, Mahe is known for its French colonial architecture and cultural heritage. It is also the smallest district in India.

(iii) Bomdila: Situated in Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila is a beautiful hill station known for its Himalayan landscape, Buddhist monasteries, and apple orchards.

(iv) Dhola Sadiya Bridge: Also known as the Bhupen Hazarika Setu, it is India's longest bridge, connecting Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It plays a crucial role in improving connectivity and reducing travel time in the region.

(v) Talakaveri: Located in Karnataka, Talakaveri is the birthplace of the Kaveri River. It has religious significance and is a popular pilgrimage site.

(vi) Satkosia: Satkosia Tiger Reserve, in Odisha, is known for its diverse flora and fauna, including the endangered Gharial crocodile. The reserve is an important ecological and environmental site in the state.

(vii) Dholavira: An archeological site in Gujarat, Dholavira is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It is known for its urban planning, water management systems, and architectural remains.

(viii) Sonamarg: A picturesque hill station in Jammu and Kashmir, Sonamarg is known for its alpine meadows, glaciers, and trekking routes. It is an important tourist destination in the region.

(ix) Maliku Atoll: Also known as Minicoy Island, it is the southernmost island of the Lakshadweep archipelago. The island is known for its unique culture, influenced by the Maldives, and its pristine beaches and coral reefs.

(x) Gangasagar: Located in West Bengal, Gangasagar is a sacred pilgrimage site where the Ganga River meets the Bay of Bengal. It is known for its annual fair, attracting thousands of devotees.

Q.1. (b) Why has extreme particulate pollution remained a festering issue in Delhi NCR region?

Extreme particulate pollution has remained a festering issue in the Delhi NCR region due to a combination of factors, such as meteorological conditions, rapid urbanization, increasing vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and various other anthropogenic sources. The following points discuss these factors in detail:

1. Meteorological conditions: Delhi NCR lies in the Indo-Gangetic plain, which has a semi-arid climate with low wind speeds and stable atmospheric conditions. These conditions limit the dispersion of pollutants, leading to their accumulation in the region. Additionally, during the winter months, the temperature inversion phenomenon (where the temperature increases with altitude) traps pollutants near the surface, worsening the air quality.

2. Rapid urbanization: The rapid growth of urban areas in the Delhi NCR region has led to an increase in construction activities, which generate significant amounts of particulate matter. The large-scale development projects and infrastructure expansion have contributed to higher levels of dust and emissions in the air.

3. Vehicular emissions: Delhi NCR has one of the highest concentrations of vehicles in India, with over 10 million registered vehicles. The emissions from these vehicles, especially diesel-powered ones, are a significant source of particulate pollution. The increasing number of vehicles, poor maintenance, and inadequate emission control measures have exacerbated the problem.

4. Industrial activities: The Delhi NCR region is home to numerous industries, including power plants, brick kilns, and small-scale manufacturing units. These industries emit large amounts of particulate matter, adding to the pollution levels in the region.

5. Crop residue burning: During the harvesting season, farmers in the neighboring states of Punjab and Haryana often resort to burning crop residues, primarily paddy straw, to clear their fields for the next crop. The smoke from these fires carries fine particulate matter, which contributes significantly to the pollution levels in Delhi NCR.

6. Diwali celebrations: The use of firecrackers during the Diwali festival leads to a sharp increase in particulate pollution levels. The Supreme Court of India has imposed restrictions on the sale and use of firecrackers to mitigate this problem, but the enforcement of these rules has been inconsistent.

7. Inadequate waste management: The improper disposal of solid waste and open burning of garbage in the Delhi NCR region adds to the particulate pollution levels. The lack of adequate waste management infrastructure and insufficient public awareness contribute to this issue.

8. Lack of stringent regulations and enforcement: Although the government has introduced several measures to control air pollution, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) and the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), the implementation and enforcement of these policies have not been entirely effective.

In conclusion, the extreme particulate pollution in the Delhi NCR region is a result of multiple factors, including meteorological conditions, rapid urbanization, vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and other anthropogenic sources. Addressing this issue requires a multi-pronged approach, including the implementation of stringent regulations, improved infrastructure, and increased public awareness.

(c) How do physiography and climate of India explain the biological diversity of the country?

The physiography and climate of India play a significant role in explaining the biological diversity of the country. The vast and varied geographical expanse of India, ranging from mountains to plains, deserts to coasts, and tropical to temperate regions, provides a plethora of habitats for flora and fauna. Additionally, the climatic conditions, including variations in temperature, precipitation, and seasonal patterns, contribute to the richness of the country's biodiversity.

1. Physiography: India's physiography is characterized by diverse landforms, which provide suitable habitats for various species. Some examples include:

(a) The Himalayas: These mountain ranges act as a natural barrier, allowing the evolution of unique flora and fauna. The high altitude alpine meadows, coniferous forests, and glacial zones of the Himalayas are home to species like snow leopards, red pandas, and various medicinal plants.

(b) The Indo-Gangetic Plains: These fertile plains, with their extensive network of rivers, support a diverse range of aquatic and terrestrial life forms. The wetlands and grasslands of this region harbor species like the Bengal tiger, one-horned rhinoceros, and the critically endangered Ganges river dolphin.

(c) The Deccan Plateau: This region comprises of deciduous forests, grasslands, and scrublands, which support a variety of species, including the Asiatic lion, Indian bison, and numerous bird species.

(d) The Western Ghats: These mountain ranges are recognized as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots due to their high degree of endemism. The Western Ghats are home to thousands of plant and animal species, including the endangered lion-tailed macaque and the Nilgiri tahr.

(e) The Eastern Ghats: These discontinuous ranges are home to a mix of moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests, providing habitat for species like the Indian elephant, Indian leopard, and several endemic bird species.

(f) Coastal and Marine Ecosystems: India's extensive coastline supports diverse ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, and estuaries. These ecosystems are home to species like the Olive Ridley turtle, dugongs, and various species of sharks and rays.

2. Climate: India's climate is characterized by diverse patterns of temperature, precipitation, and seasonality, which significantly influence the distribution of flora and fauna.

(a) Tropical Rainforests: Areas with high rainfall and humidity, such as the Western Ghats and the Northeastern states, support lush evergreen forests that harbor a high degree of biodiversity. These forests are home to species like the Great Indian Hornbill, Malabar Giant Squirrel, and numerous endemic amphibians and reptiles.

(b) Temperate Forests: In regions with moderate temperatures and rainfall, such as the Himalayan foothills, temperate forests are found. These forests provide habitat for species like the Himalayan black bear, takin, and the musk deer.

(c) Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: The Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch are characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures. These regions support unique ecosystems and species adapted to the harsh conditions, such as the Indian wild ass, blackbuck, and the Great Indian Bustard.

(d) Alpine Tundra: The high-altitude regions of the Himalayas experience cold and harsh climatic conditions, which support alpine meadows and tundra ecosystems. These ecosystems are home to species like the Himalayan marmot, snow partridge, and the elusive snow leopard.

In conclusion, the diverse physiography and climatic conditions of India contribute to its rich biological diversity. The varied landforms and ecosystems provide a multitude of habitats for flora and fauna, while the climatic variations further influence the distribution and adaptation of species. The country's biodiversity is not only a reflection of its natural heritage but also plays a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance and providing essential ecosystem services.

(d) The process of desertification leads to soil desiccation and soil loss. Explain.

Desertification is the process of land degradation caused by various factors such as climate change, human activities, and natural processes, leading to a decline in biological productivity and an increase in aridity. This process has severe implications on soil quality, including soil desiccation (loss of moisture) and soil loss (erosion).

Soil Desiccation:
Soil desiccation is the process of moisture loss from the soil due to factors such as excessive evaporation, low precipitation, high temperatures, and poor water management practices. Desertification causes soil desiccation in the following ways:

1. Climate change: As temperatures rise due to global warming, the rate of evaporation increases, leading to a reduction in soil moisture. Additionally, climate change can result in reduced and erratic precipitation patterns, further decreasing soil moisture levels.
For example, the Sahel region in Africa has experienced a significant decline in precipitation over the last few decades, contributing to widespread desertification in the area.

2. Deforestation: The removal of vegetation cover exposes the soil surface to direct sunlight and wind, increasing the rate of evaporation and promoting desiccation. Vegetation also plays a crucial role in the water cycle by absorbing and releasing moisture through transpiration. Deforestation disrupts this process, leading to reduced soil moisture.
For instance, in the Thar Desert of India, deforestation for agricultural expansion and infrastructure development has resulted in soil desiccation and the spread of desert-like conditions.

3. Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock can remove the protective cover of vegetation and compact the soil, reducing its capacity to retain moisture. This leads to increased evaporation and soil desiccation.

In the United States, the overgrazing of grasslands in the Great Basin has led to soil desiccation and increased vulnerability to desertification.

Soil Loss:
Desertification also contributes to soil loss through erosion, which is the removal and transportation of soil particles by wind or water. The following factors associated with desertification contribute to soil loss:

1. Loss of vegetation cover: As mentioned earlier, deforestation and overgrazing expose the soil surface, making it more vulnerable to erosion. The roots of plants help bind soil particles together, and their absence weakens the soil structure, making it easier for wind and water to detach and transport soil particles.
For example, in the Loess Plateau of China, deforestation and overgrazing have led to severe soil erosion, with millions of tons of fertile soil being lost annually.

2. Soil degradation: Desertification can lead to the degradation of soil structure, reducing its ability to resist erosion. Desiccated soil is more prone to wind erosion as it lacks sufficient moisture to bind particles together. Additionally, land degradation can cause soil compaction and crusting, reducing the infiltration capacity of soil and increasing runoff, leading to water erosion.

In the Mediterranean region, land degradation due to desertification has resulted in increased soil erosion, particularly in areas with steep slopes and sparse vegetation cover.

3. Climate change: Changes in precipitation patterns caused by climate change can lead to more frequent and intense storms, which can increase the risk of soil erosion. Additionally, prolonged droughts can weaken the soil structure, making it more susceptible to erosion when rain eventually occurs.

In Australia, climate change has exacerbated the risk of desertification and soil erosion in the country's arid and semi-arid regions, with severe consequences for agriculture and the environment.

In conclusion, desertification has a significant impact on soil quality through the processes of soil desiccation and soil loss. These effects have severe implications for agricultural productivity, food security, and the overall health of ecosystems. To combat desertification, it is essential to adopt sustainable land management practices, such as reforestation, conservation agriculture, and proper grazing management, to preserve soil health and prevent further degradation.

Q.2 (a) Critically examine the factors affecting the unpredictability of South-West Monsoon system in India.

The South-West Monsoon system in India is a crucial climatic phenomenon that greatly influences the country's agricultural practices, water resources, and overall economy. Despite its significance, it remains a highly unpredictable system due to various factors that affect its onset, intensity, and spatial distribution. This essay aims to critically examine the factors contributing to the unpredictability of the South-West Monsoon system in India, with relevant examples.

1. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): ENSO is the most significant factor influencing the variability of Indian monsoons. El Niño, the warm phase of ENSO, is associated with the warming of the Pacific Ocean, which can lead to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. Conversely, La Niña, the cold phase, is associated with increased rainfall. The irregular occurrence of El Niño and La Niña events adds to the unpredictability of monsoons in India. For example, in 2009, India experienced a severe drought due to the El Niño effect, which led to a shortfall in food production.

2. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD is another climate phenomenon that affects the Indian monsoon. It refers to the difference in sea surface temperatures between the western and eastern Indian Ocean. A positive IOD is associated with enhanced monsoon rainfall, while a negative IOD tends to weaken the monsoon. The IOD's irregular pattern contributes to the variability of the South-West Monsoon system. In 1997, a strong negative IOD coincided with an El Niño event, causing a significant drought in India.

3. Climate change: Global warming and climate change have been altering the monsoon patterns in recent years. Rising temperatures are causing changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, which can influence the onset and withdrawal of the monsoon. Moreover, the melting of Himalayan glaciers can impact the amount of moisture available for the monsoon system. These changes make it increasingly difficult to predict the behavior of the South-West Monsoon system in India.

4. Topography: India's diverse topography also plays a role in the unpredictability of the monsoon. The Western Ghats, for instance, play a crucial role in capturing the moisture-laden winds, enriching the regions along the west coast with abundant rainfall. However, the rain shadow areas in the leeward side of the mountains receive scanty rainfall, making it difficult to predict the spatial distribution of the monsoon.

5. Intra-seasonal variability: The South-West Monsoon in India is also characterized by intra-seasonal variability, which refers to variations in rainfall within a season. This variability is attributed to the presence of active and break spells in the monsoon. Active spells are associated with heavy rainfall, while break spells are marked by reduced or no rainfall. The irregular occurrence of active and break spells adds to the unpredictability of the monsoon system.

In conclusion, the unpredictability of the South-West Monsoon system in India can be attributed to a multitude of factors, including ENSO, IOD, climate change, topography, and intra-seasonal variability. These factors interact in complex ways, making it challenging for meteorologists and climatologists to predict the onset, intensity, and distribution of the monsoon accurately. This unpredictability poses significant challenges for agriculture, water resource management, and disaster preparedness in India. Therefore, it is essential to invest in advanced research and technologies to improve our understanding of the monsoon system and develop better forecasting models for the benefit of society.

(b) The peninsular location of India provides scope for harnessing non-conventional energy resources. Discuss with examples.

The peninsular location of India, surrounded by the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean, offers immense potential for harnessing non-conventional energy resources. Non-conventional energy resources refer to renewable and environment-friendly sources of energy that can be used as an alternative to conventional sources like coal, oil, and gas. In India, the major non-conventional energy resources include solar, wind, tidal, wave, and geothermal energy. The peninsular location of India provides abundant opportunities to harness these resources, which can significantly contribute to the country's energy security and sustainable development goals. Some of the examples of harnessing non-conventional energy resources in the peninsular region are:

1. Solar Energy: The peninsular region of India receives abundant sunlight throughout the year, making it an ideal location for harnessing solar energy. The states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu have vast tracts of barren land that can be utilized for setting up large-scale solar power plants. For example, the Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan, the Pavagada Solar Park in Karnataka, and the Kamuthi Solar Power Project in Tamil Nadu are some of the largest solar power plants in India.

2. Wind Energy: The peninsular region has a long coastline, providing ample opportunities for harnessing wind energy. The coastal areas of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu have high wind energy potential due to the strong monsoon winds and unique topographical features. For instance, the Muppandal Wind Farm in Tamil Nadu, the Jaisalmer Wind Park in Rajasthan, and the Brahmanvel Wind Farm in Maharashtra are some of the major wind energy projects in India.

3. Tidal Energy: The peninsular location of India and its vast coastline make it suitable for harnessing tidal energy. The Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat, the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat, and the Sundarbans in West Bengal are areas with high tidal energy potential. The government of India has initiated a pilot project to harness tidal energy in the Gulf of Kutch, which can pave the way for large-scale tidal power generation in the future.

4. Wave Energy: The long coastline and the peninsular location of India also provide scope for harnessing wave energy. The western and southern coasts of India have high wave energy potential due to their exposure to the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. The Indian government has set up a Wave Energy Test Station at Vizhinjam in Kerala to study the feasibility of harnessing wave energy along the Indian coastline.

5. Geothermal Energy: Though not directly related to the peninsular location, geothermal energy potential exists in some regions of the peninsular India. The Puga Valley in Jammu and Kashmir, the Tattapani geothermal field in Chhattisgarh, and the Manikaran geothermal field in Himachal Pradesh are some of the potential geothermal energy sites in India.

In conclusion, the peninsular location of India provides an excellent opportunity for harnessing non-conventional energy resources, which can play a crucial role in meeting the country's energy demands sustainably. The government of India has been actively promoting the development of renewable energy projects, and significant progress has been made in recent years. However, there is still vast untapped potential in the peninsular region, and concerted efforts are needed to harness these non-conventional energy resources to their full potential.

(c) Groundwater contamination in the fast expanding urban landscape of India appears to have become a major public health issue. Discuss.

Groundwater contamination in the fast-expanding urban landscape of India has become a major public health issue in recent years. Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth have put immense pressure on the limited freshwater resources, particularly groundwater, which is the primary source of drinking water for a majority of the Indian population. Contamination of groundwater has led to serious health implications, including waterborne diseases and long-term health impacts such as cancer and birth defects.

There are several factors contributing to the contamination of groundwater in urban India:

1. Unplanned urbanization: The rapid expansion of urban areas without proper planning has led to a lack of infrastructure for sanitation, waste disposal, and sewage treatment. This results in the seepage of untreated sewage and waste into the soil, which eventually contaminates the groundwater resources.

2. Industrial pollution: Industrial effluents containing hazardous chemicals, heavy metals, and other pollutants are often discharged directly into water bodies or dumped on land, which leads to the percolation of these contaminants into the groundwater.

3. Agricultural practices: The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture has also contributed to groundwater contamination. These chemicals seep into the soil and eventually reach the groundwater, making it toxic and unfit for consumption.

4. Over-extraction of groundwater: The increasing demand for water due to population growth and urbanization has led to the over-extraction of groundwater. This has resulted in a decline in the water table, which further increases the concentration of pollutants in the remaining groundwater.

Some examples of groundwater contamination in urban India are:

1. Bengaluru: A study conducted by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in 2015 revealed that 85% of the city's groundwater is contaminated with nitrate levels exceeding the permissible limit due to untreated sewage and waste disposal.

2. Delhi: According to a report by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), over 70% of groundwater samples collected from various parts of Delhi showed high levels of contamination with heavy metals, including lead, chromium, and nickel.

3. Hyderabad: A study conducted by the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) found that the city's groundwater is contaminated with toxic elements like arsenic, fluoride, and nitrate, leading to severe health risks for the residents.

To address the issue of groundwater contamination in the urban landscape of India, the following measures can be taken:

(1) Effective implementation of policies and regulations to ensure proper waste disposal, sewage treatment, and industrial effluent management.

(2) Encouraging the use of sustainable agricultural practices, such as organic farming and integrated pest management, to reduce the dependency on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

(3) Promoting rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater to maintain the water table and improve the quality of groundwater.

(4) Creating awareness among the public about the importance of water conservation and the dangers of groundwater contamination.

In conclusion, groundwater contamination in the fast expanding urban landscape of India is a pressing public health issue that needs immediate attention and concerted efforts from the government, industries, and citizens to ensure the availability of safe and clean drinking water for all.

Q.3. (a) Discuss the recent changes brought about in institutional frameworks of agriculture in India. Evaluate its impact on the agrarian economy of the country.

The recent changes brought about in institutional frameworks of agriculture in India are largely driven by the government's efforts to improve the agricultural sector and address issues such as low productivity, lack of modern farming techniques, and inadequate infrastructure. Some of the significant changes include:

1. The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) Scheme: Launched in 2019, this scheme aims to provide financial support to small and marginal farmers by giving them a direct cash transfer of INR 6,000 per year. This has helped to reduce the financial burden on farmers and improve their livelihoods.

2. Formation of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs): FPOs are collectives of small and marginal farmers that help in the aggregation of produce, processing, marketing, and distribution. They are aimed at increasing farmers' bargaining power, reducing input costs, and improving market access.

3. The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve water use efficiency and irrigation infrastructure in the country. The initiative focuses on watershed development, micro-irrigation, and command area development.

4. Soil Health Card (SHC) Scheme: Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to provide farmers with information on soil nutrients and their deficiencies. This helps farmers in adopting the right mix of fertilizers and improving soil health, thus enhancing crop productivity.

5. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM): Launched in 2016, e-NAM is an online trading platform for agricultural commodities that aims to create a unified national market for agricultural products by connecting existing Agricultural Produce Market Committees (APMCs).

6. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund: Launched in 2020, this scheme aims to provide affordable and long-term credit for the development of farm-gate infrastructure, such as warehouses, cold storage, and supply chain management systems.

(b) The impact of these changes on the agrarian economy of India can be evaluated as follows:

1. Increased income: Schemes like PM-KISAN have helped to increase the income of small and marginal farmers, thereby improving their economic status and reducing poverty.

2. Improved productivity: The introduction of modern farming techniques and efficient irrigation systems through schemes like PMKSY and SHC has led to increased agricultural productivity in the country.

3. Enhanced market access: The formation of FPOs and the e-NAM platform have helped farmers in getting better prices for their produce and reduced the role of middlemen.

4. Better infrastructure: The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund has facilitated the development of better storage and transportation facilities, reducing post-harvest losses and ensuring better prices for farmers.

5. Sustainable farming practices: Schemes like SHC have encouraged the adoption of balanced and sustainable farming practices, leading to improved soil health and reduced environmental degradation.

However, there are certain challenges that need to be addressed to fully realize the potential of these institutional changes:

1. Lack of awareness: Many farmers are still unaware of the various schemes and initiatives, limiting their access to benefits.

2. Implementation issues: There have been instances of delays and discrepancies in the implementation of schemes, leading to a limited impact on the ground.

3. Inadequate funding: Some schemes, like the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund, have been criticized for inadequate funding and limited coverage.

4. Limited reach of FPOs: The formation of FPOs is still in its nascent stage, and their reach and impact on the agricultural sector need to be expanded.

In conclusion, the recent changes in the institutional framework of agriculture in India have brought about several positive impacts on the agrarian economy. However, there is still much scope for improvement, and the government needs to address the existing challenges to ensure the holistic development of the agricultural sector.

(b) Discuss the continuing disputes on water sharing between the riparian states of North-West India.

The water-sharing disputes between the riparian states in North-West India primarily revolve around the allocation and utilization of water resources from major rivers, such as the Indus, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Yamuna. These disputes involve states like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu & Kashmir. The disputes have historical, political, and economic implications, leading to tensions between these states.

1. Punjab-Haryana water dispute: The major bone of contention between Punjab and Haryana is the sharing of the Ravi and Beas rivers' waters. The primary dispute involves the construction of the Satluj Yamuna Link (SYL) canal, which was envisioned to distribute water between these two states. Punjab has been opposing the construction of the canal, citing that it is already a water-deficient state, and diverting water to Haryana would further aggravate its water scarcity. Haryana, on the other hand, claims its legitimate right to the river waters as per the 1981 Punjab Reorganization Act and the 1985 Indira Gandhi Award.

2. Punjab-Rajasthan water dispute: The dispute between Punjab and Rajasthan mainly concerns the allocation of water from the Indira Gandhi Canal, originating from the Harike Barrage on the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas rivers. Rajasthan claims that Punjab has been using more than its allocated share of water, leading to a shortage of water for irrigation and drinking purposes in the state.

3. Himachal Pradesh-Punjab water dispute: Himachal Pradesh and Punjab have been involved in a dispute over the sharing of the Ravi and Beas rivers' waters. Himachal Pradesh has demanded a higher share of water, citing its contribution to the rivers' flow and the need for water resources for its growing population and agricultural activities.

4. Jammu & Kashmir-Punjab water dispute: The dispute between Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab revolves around the sharing of water from the Ravi and Ujh rivers. Jammu & Kashmir has demanded a higher share of water to meet its agricultural and power generation requirements. The construction of the Ranjit Sagar Dam and Thein Dam by Punjab has also been a source of contention between the two states.

These water-sharing disputes have persisted due to various factors such as the growing demand for water resources, climate change, and reduced water availability, leading to increased competition among the riparian states. Inter-state disputes have also been fueled by political factors, with different political parties using the issue to gain public support.

Efforts have been made to resolve these disputes through negotiations, legal actions, and the intervention of central government agencies such as the Central Water Commission. However, a comprehensive and long-term solution to these disputes requires a holistic approach, including better water management practices, equitable distribution of water resources, and promotion of water conservation measures.

(c) Soils of India, are clear reflections of the structure and process. Comment.

The soils of India are a clear reflection of the structure and process due to the diverse geological formations, climatic conditions, and biological activity that have shaped the Indian subcontinent over millions of years. The Indian soils can be broadly classified into eight types, each of which is a result of distinct geological processes, climatic conditions, and vegetation patterns. These include:

1. Alluvial soils: These are the most widespread soils in India, covering about 40% of the total land area, and are predominantly found in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Alluvial soils are formed due to the deposition of sediments brought by rivers, and their fertility is primarily dependent on the source of the sediments and the process of deposition. The alluvial soils are highly fertile and ideal for agriculture, supporting the cultivation of crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane, and cotton.

2. Black soils: Also known as the 'Regur' or the 'Cotton soil,' black soils are developed over the Deccan Trap, a basaltic formation that covers large parts of central and western India. The black color of these soils is due to the high content of iron and aluminum oxides. They are rich in calcium, potassium, and magnesium and are well suited for the cultivation of cotton, oilseeds, and pulses.

3. Red soils: Red soils cover about 10% of the total land area in India and are predominantly found in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau. These soils are formed due to the weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks, resulting in a high concentration of iron oxide. Red soils are generally less fertile than alluvial and black soils, but they can support crops such as millets, groundnuts, and pulses with proper management practices.

4. Laterite soils: Laterite soils are found mainly in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and the northeastern states of India. These soils are formed by the intense leaching of nutrients due to heavy rainfall. Laterite soils are rich in iron and aluminum oxides but are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, making them less suitable for agriculture.

5. Arid and desert soils: These soils are found in the arid and semi-arid regions of western India, particularly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Haryana. Desert soils are characterized by low organic matter content, high salinity, and poor water retention capacity. Due to their low fertility, these soils are not suitable for agriculture without proper irrigation and soil management practices.

6. Saline and alkaline soils: Saline and alkaline soils are found in the arid and semi-arid regions, as well as in the poorly drained areas of the Indo-Gangetic plains. These soils have a high concentration of salts, which affects their fertility and makes them unsuitable for agriculture without proper drainage and reclamation measures.

7. Peaty and marshy soils: Peaty and marshy soils are found in the humid regions of India, particularly in parts of Kerala, West Bengal, Assam, and Odisha. These soils are characterized by high organic matter content and poor drainage, making them unsuitable for agriculture without proper land reclamation measures.

8. Forest and mountain soils: Forest and mountain soils are found in the hilly regions of the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, and the Eastern Ghats. These soils are generally shallow, acidic, and less fertile due to the steep slopes and high rainfall, which causes leaching of nutrients.

In conclusion, the soils of India are a clear reflection of the structure and process, as they have been shaped by the diverse geological formations, climatic conditions, and vegetation patterns that characterize the Indian subcontinent. Each soil type has its unique characteristics, which determine its suitability for agriculture and other land use practices. With proper soil management and conservation practices, India can harness its diverse soil resources to ensure sustainable agricultural production and food security for its growing population.

Q.4. (a) India is bestowed with rich mineral resources due to its geological structure. Correlate the above statement with large mineral belts of India.

India is endowed with a diverse geological structure, which is a result of its long and complex geological history. This diverse geological structure has bestowed the country with a rich variety of mineral resources, which are distributed across different regions. The large mineral belts of India can be correlated with the country's geological structure, as explained below:

1. The Peninsular Belt: This belt comprises the Archean and Dharwar Craton, which are among the oldest rocks in India. The peninsular belt is rich in several metallic and non-metallic minerals, including iron ore, manganese, bauxite, copper, gold, and limestone. Major mineral-rich regions in this belt include the Chota Nagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal), the Dharwar region (Karnataka), and the Bastar region (Chhattisgarh). For example, the Chota Nagpur Plateau is known for its vast reserves of coal, iron ore, mica, and bauxite.

2. The Himalayan Belt: This belt includes the regions formed due to the tectonic collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates. The Himalayan belt is rich in mineral resources like gypsum, limestone, dolomite, phosphorite, and low-grade coal. The belt is also known for its vast hydroelectric potential. The Himalayan belt is subdivided into three parallel zones, namely the Great Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas. The mineral resources are mainly found in the Lesser Himalayas, which include regions like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.

3. The Coastal Belt: The coastal belt includes the regions along the eastern and western coasts of India. The coastal belt is characterized by sedimentary rocks, which are rich in non-metallic minerals like limestone, gypsum, and phosphorite. The coastal belt also has deposits of heavy mineral sands, which contain valuable minerals like ilmenite, rutile, monazite, and zircon. Major mineral-rich regions in the coastal belt include the east coast (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu) and the west coast (Kerala, Karnataka, Gujarat).

4. The North-Eastern Plateau: This region includes the states of Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, and Mizoram. The North-Eastern Plateau is rich in coal, limestone, and uranium resources. For example, Meghalaya has large deposits of coal and limestone, while Assam is known for its petroleum and natural gas reserves.

5. The Deccan Traps: This region covers parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. The Deccan Traps are characterized by basaltic lava flows that are rich in minerals like manganese, bauxite, and laterite. The region also has deposits of coal, limestone, and dolomite.

In conclusion, the geological structure of India has played a key role in the distribution of mineral resources across the country. The large mineral belts of India, such as the Peninsular Belt, the Himalayan Belt, the Coastal Belt, the North-Eastern Plateau, and the Deccan Traps, are all correlated with the diverse geological structure of the country, which has resulted in the rich mineral resources found in these regions.

b) Discuss the importance of ‘Dry-land’ farming in the drought-prone regions of India.

Dry-land farming is an agricultural practice that refers to the cultivation of crops in areas with scarce water resources without depending on irrigation. This is usually done in semi-arid and arid regions where the annual precipitation is low, and the soil quality is poor. In India, dry-land farming is practiced in several drought-prone regions, including parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

The importance of dry-land farming in the drought-prone regions of India can be discussed under the following points:

1. Food Security: Dry-land farming plays a crucial role in ensuring food security for millions of people living in the drought-prone regions of India. It produces staple crops like millets (sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet), pulses (pigeon pea, chickpea, and lentil), and oilseeds (groundnut, mustard, and sunflower), which are essential for the local population's diet.

2. Livelihood Support: Dry-land farming is a major source of livelihood for the rural population in these regions. It provides employment opportunities for farmers, laborers, and other stakeholders involved in the agricultural value chain, including traders, processors, and retailers. It also supports allied sectors like animal husbandry, agroforestry, and handicrafts.

3. Ecological Balance: Dry-land farming practices, if managed sustainably, can help maintain the ecological balance of the drought-prone regions. These practices include intercropping, mixed cropping, crop rotation, and agroforestry. They help in conserving soil and water, reducing soil erosion, and enhancing soil fertility and biodiversity.

4. Adaptation to Climate Change: Dry-land farming is an important adaptation strategy for coping with the impacts of climate change in drought-prone regions. The crops grown in these regions are often hardy and drought-tolerant, which makes them resilient to the changing climate. By focusing on the development of drought-tolerant crop varieties and promoting climate-smart agricultural practices, dry-land farming can help reduce the vulnerability of farmers to climate change.

5. Enhancing Agricultural Productivity: Dry-land farming has the potential to enhance agricultural productivity in drought-prone regions by adopting improved technologies and farming practices. These include the use of drought-tolerant crop varieties, soil and water conservation measures, improved nutrient management, and integrated pest management.

6. Social and Economic Development: Dry-land farming can contribute to the social and economic development of the drought-prone regions by generating income and employment opportunities, improving food security and nutrition, and reducing poverty and inequality. It can also support the development of rural infrastructure, market linkages, and value addition for agricultural products.

In conclusion, dry-land farming holds significant importance in the drought-prone regions of India. It plays a crucial role in ensuring food security, livelihood support, ecological balance, and adaptation to climate change. By focusing on the sustainable development of dry-land farming, India can address the challenges of food security, rural poverty, and climate change in these regions.

c) Incidence of extreme rainfall events and flash floods in recent times have led to devastating consequences for people living in low-lying areas and flood plains of the country. Discuss.

The incidence of extreme rainfall events and flash floods in recent times has had devastating consequences for people living in low-lying areas and flood plains of India. This can be attributed to various factors such as climate change, rapid urbanization, and deforestation, which have led to increased vulnerability and severity of such events.

Climate change is a significant factor contributing to the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events. Global warming has led to a rise in temperatures, which in turn contributes to higher evaporation rates and increased atmospheric moisture. This results in more intense rainfall events, leading to flash floods and widespread devastation in low-lying areas and flood plains.

For example, the 2015 Chennai floods were caused by unprecedented rainfall, which was attributed to the El Niño phenomenon and climate change. The city received more than 500 mm of rainfall in just 24 hours, resulting in massive flooding and the loss of over 400 lives.

Rapid urbanization is another factor that exacerbates the impact of extreme rainfall events and flash floods. As cities expand, there is a decrease in permeable surfaces due to the construction of buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. This reduces the soil's ability to absorb rainwater, leading to increased surface runoff, flash floods, and waterlogging in low-lying areas.

For instance, the 2017 Mumbai floods were a result of intense rainfall coupled with rapid urbanization and poor urban planning. The city's drainage system was unable to cope with the heavy rainfall, leading to flooding in many areas and causing significant damage to property and loss of lives.

Deforestation, particularly in catchment areas of rivers, is another factor that contributes to the increased incidence of extreme rainfall events and flash floods. Deforestation leads to reduced infiltration and increased surface runoff, as the soil loses its ability to retain water. This results in a higher volume of water flowing into rivers and streams, increasing the risk of flash floods in downstream areas.

The 2013 Uttarakhand floods, which resulted in the death of over 5,000 people, were partially attributed to deforestation and the construction of hydroelectric projects in the fragile Himalayan ecosystem. Heavy rainfall led to flash floods and landslides, which wreaked havoc in the region.

To mitigate the consequences of extreme rainfall events and flash floods, the following measures can be taken:

(1) Strengthen early warning systems and disaster management plans to ensure timely evacuation and relief efforts.
(2) Implement sustainable urban planning measures, such as constructing stormwater drains, promoting rainwater harvesting, and preserving wetlands to reduce surface runoff and increase water absorption.
(3) Undertake afforestation and reforestation programs, especially in catchment areas of rivers, to improve soil infiltration and reduce surface runoff.
(4) Regulate construction activities in ecologically sensitive zones and enforce strict environmental guidelines to minimize the impact of human activities on the ecosystem.

In conclusion, the incidence of extreme rainfall events and flash floods in India has had disastrous consequences for people living in low-lying areas and flood plains. Addressing the challenges posed by climate change, rapid urbanization, and deforestation is crucial to reduce the vulnerability of these regions and mitigate the impact of such events in the future.