UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Geography Paper 2 (Section- B) | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q. 5. (a) Discuss the impact of Forest Rights Act, 2006 on the local forest communities in India.

The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, also known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, was enacted to address historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities in India. The act aimed to provide legal recognition to the rights of these communities over forest resources, which they have been using and conserving for generations. The FRA has had a significant impact on local forest communities in India, which can be discussed under the following headings:

1. Recognition of Rights: The FRA recognizes a range of rights for forest-dwelling communities, including the right to live in and cultivate forestlands, the right to manage and protect community forest resources, and the right to access and use forest resources such as water, grazing, and minor forest produce. This has empowered local communities by providing them legal recognition and protection for their livelihoods and traditional practices.

For example, in the state of Odisha, more than 4,00,000 individual and community titles have been distributed under the FRA, securing the rights of thousands of families to their forestlands and resources.

2. Decentralization of Forest Governance: The FRA emphasizes the role of local democratic institutions, particularly the Gram Sabha (village assembly), in the decision-making process related to forest rights recognition and management. This has led to a shift in power from the Forest Department to local communities, enabling them to participate actively in the governance of their forests.

For instance, in the Mendha-Lekha village of Maharashtra, the community has been successful in obtaining community forest resource rights, which has allowed them to manage their forests sustainably and benefit from the sale of non-timber forest products like bamboo.

3. Livelihood Opportunities: The FRA has opened up new livelihood opportunities for forest-dwelling communities by allowing them to assert their rights over forest resources. This has led to an increase in income for many families who are now able to access and use forest resources without fear of eviction or harassment by forest officials.

In the state of Chhattisgarh, for example, the collection and sale of minor forest produce like tendu leaves, sal seeds, and mahua flowers have provided a significant source of income for local communities.

4. Conservation of Forests and Biodiversity: The FRA recognizes the role of local communities in conserving forests and biodiversity. By giving them rights over forest resources, the act has incentivized communities to manage their forests sustainably and protect them from external threats such as illegal logging and mining.

In the BRT Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka, the Soliga tribal community has used the FRA to assert their rights to live and manage their forests, leading to better conservation outcomes and a decline in human-wildlife conflicts.

5. Challenges and Criticisms: Despite the positive impacts of the FRA on local forest communities, the act's implementation has faced several challenges. These include bureaucratic delays in processing claims, limited awareness among communities about their rights, and resistance from the Forest Department and conservation lobbies. Additionally, the act has been criticized for not addressing the issues of landlessness among landless forest dwellers and for not adequately protecting the rights of particularly vulnerable tribal groups.

In conclusion, the Forest Rights Act, 2006, has had a significant impact on local forest communities in India by recognizing their rights, decentralizing forest governance, providing livelihood opportunities, and promoting community-led conservation. However, several challenges remain in the act's implementation, and addressing these is crucial to ensure the realization of its objectives and the empowerment of forest-dwelling communities.

(b) Can the Panchayat Raj institutions play a role in grassroot level planning in India? If yes, discuss how.

Yes, the Panchayat Raj institutions can play a significant role in grassroot level planning in India. Panchayats, as the third tier of governance in the country, are entrusted with the responsibility of promoting local self-governance and addressing the needs and aspirations of the local population. As a result, they are in the best position to facilitate grassroot level planning, which is essential for the development of rural areas.

The following points discuss how Panchayat Raj institutions can contribute to grassroot level planning in India:

1. Decentralization of powers: Panchayat Raj institutions, being the lowest level of governance, can facilitate decentralization of powers and responsibilities, which is crucial for effective grassroot planning. This allows for better decision-making and resource allocation based on the needs and priorities of the local community.
Example: The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, provides for the devolution of powers to Panchayat Raj institutions in 29 subjects listed in the Eleventh Schedule. This includes areas such as agriculture, water management, rural housing, and social forestry, which are critical for rural development.

2. Participatory planning: Panchayat Raj institutions can engage local people in the planning process through Gram Sabhas, where members of the village community come together to discuss and decide on development priorities. This participatory approach ensures that the needs and aspirations of the local population are taken into account while formulating plans and policies.
Example: In Kerala, the People's Plan Campaign initiated in 1996 involved Gram Sabhas in the preparation of local development plans, leading to the successful implementation of several community-based projects.

3. Resource mobilization and management: Panchayat Raj institutions can play a crucial role in mobilizing and managing resources required for grassroot level planning. They can generate revenues through local taxes, fees, and user charges, and manage resources received from the central and state governments.
Example: The MGNREGA program, which aims to provide guaranteed employment to rural households, is implemented through Panchayat Raj institutions. They are responsible for identifying local works, preparing project proposals, and managing funds for the program.

4. Monitoring and evaluation: Panchayat Raj institutions can monitor the progress of development projects and ensure that they are implemented effectively. They can also evaluate the outcomes and impact of these projects, providing valuable feedback for future planning.
Example: In Karnataka, Panchayats have established Social Audit Committees, comprising of local citizens, to monitor the implementation of various government schemes and ensure transparency and accountability in the system.

5. Capacity building and training: Panchayat Raj institutions can build the capacities of local communities by providing training and skill development programs. This helps in creating a skilled workforce that can contribute to the development of the area.
Example: In Tamil Nadu, the State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD) conducts regular training programs for Panchayat Raj institutions to enhance their capacities in planning, implementation, and monitoring of development projects.

In conclusion, Panchayat Raj institutions have the potential to play a significant role in grassroot level planning in India. By involving local communities in decision-making, mobilizing resources, and ensuring effective implementation of projects, they can contribute to the overall development of rural areas. However, to realize this potential, there is a need to strengthen the capacities of Panchayat Raj institutions and provide them with adequate resources and support.

(c) Discuss the significance of new ports on the Western Coast of India on the external trade of the country.

The new ports on the Western Coast of India play a crucial role in the external trade of the country. The Western Coast of India, extending from Gujarat to Kerala, is strategically located with proximity to major international shipping routes and has a vast hinterland, which includes some of the most industrialized and agriculturally productive regions of India. This makes the development of new ports on the Western Coast essential for the growth of external trade.

Some of the significant new ports on the Western Coast of India include Mundra Port (Gujarat), Hazira Port (Gujarat), and Vizhinjam Port (Kerala). These ports have the potential to transform the external trade landscape of India due to the following reasons:

1. Enhanced capacity: The development of new ports would increase the overall handling capacity of Indian ports, enabling them to cater to the growing volume of trade. For example, Mundra Port is currently the largest private port in India and has a capacity to handle over 200 million tonnes of cargo per annum.

2. Improved connectivity: New ports on the Western Coast would improve India's connectivity with major global markets, especially the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. This would reduce the transit time and cost for Indian exporters and importers. For instance, the Vizhinjam Port, once operational, is expected to reduce the transit time to Europe and the Middle East by 10 days compared to the existing Indian ports.

3. Diversification of trade routes: The development of new ports on the Western Coast would help diversify India's trade routes, reducing the dependence on traditional ports like Mumbai and Kandla. This would not only decongest these ports but also provide an alternative in case of any disruption to the traditional trade routes.

4. Promotion of coastal shipping: New ports on the Western Coast would promote coastal shipping, which is more cost-effective and environment-friendly compared to road and rail transportation. This would help in reducing the logistics cost and enhancing the competitiveness of Indian exports.

5. Development of industrial corridors: The new ports on the Western Coast would act as a catalyst for the development of industrial corridors in their hinterland. For example, the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) and the Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) would benefit from the enhanced port capacity and improved connectivity provided by the new ports.

6. Attraction of foreign investment: The development of new ports on the Western Coast would help in attracting foreign investment in port infrastructure, port-based industries, and logistics services, creating new job opportunities and contributing to the economic growth of the region.

In conclusion, the new ports on the Western Coast of India hold significant potential in transforming the external trade of the country. By enhancing the capacity, connectivity, and efficiency of the Indian port system, these ports can help India in becoming a major maritime power and realizing its vision of becoming a $5 trillion economy by 2025.

(d) How would decline in Total Fertility Rate (TFR) below the replacement level, in many states of India affect the future population structure of the country?

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children born per woman during her entire reproductive period. A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, which is the fertility rate required for the population to replace itself in the long run, without migration. In India, the TFR has been steadily declining, and in many states, it has dropped below the replacement level.

A decline in TFR below the replacement level in many states of India would have significant consequences for the future population structure of the country. These consequences can be understood in terms of the following aspects:

1. Age structure: As the TFR declines, the proportion of the young population (0-14 years) decreases, while the proportion of the working-age population (15-64 years) and the elderly population (65+ years) increases. This results in an aging population, which can put pressure on the nation's healthcare, pension, and social security systems. For example, states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Punjab have already experienced a significant aging phenomenon due to low TFRs.

2. Dependency ratio: With fewer children being born, the dependency ratio (ratio of dependents to working-age population) decreases. This can lead to a demographic dividend, where a larger share of the population is in the working-age group, leading to increased economic output and potential for economic growth. However, this demographic dividend is temporary, and as the population continues to age, dependency ratios will rise again, potentially leading to economic slowdowns.

3. Regional disparities: The decline in TFR is not uniform across all states in India. States with lower TFRs tend to be more urbanized and economically developed, while those with higher TFRs are more rural and less developed. This could lead to widening regional disparities in terms of economic development, healthcare access, and education levels. For example, states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh still have relatively high TFRs compared to southern or western states, leading to potential disparities in development.

4. Gender imbalance: A decline in TFR may also exacerbate existing gender imbalances in the population due to prevailing preferences for male children in many parts of India. This could result in a skewed sex ratio, further affecting the marriage market, and potentially leading to social issues like increased violence against women, trafficking, and female infanticide.

5. Migration: As TFR declines in certain states, labor shortages may occur, especially in the agricultural and unskilled labor sectors. This can lead to increased migration from states with higher TFRs to states with lower TFRs, leading to changing population dynamics and potential social, economic, and political challenges.

In conclusion, the decline in TFR below the replacement level in many states of India will significantly affect the future population structure of the country in terms of age structure, dependency ratios, regional disparities, gender imbalances, and migration patterns. Policymakers need to recognize these potential consequences and develop strategies to address them in order to ensure sustainable development and social stability in the country.

(e) Kalapani dispute has opened a new front on the India-Nepal international border. Explain.

The Kalapani dispute refers to an ongoing territorial disagreement between India and Nepal, primarily concerning the strategic location of the Kalapani territory, which lies between the Indian state of Uttarakhand and the Nepalese province of Sudurpashchim Pradesh. This dispute has opened a new front on the India-Nepal international border, leading to diplomatic tensions and potential security concerns.

The catalyst for the recent escalation of the Kalapani dispute was the release of a new political map by India in November 2019. The map depicted the entire Kalapani territory as part of India, which was perceived by Nepal as a unilateral decision and a violation of their territorial sovereignty. In response, Nepal also released a new political map in May 2020, showing the disputed area as part of their territory.

The Kalapani dispute has historical roots, dating back to the early 19th century. The key document in this dispute is the Sugauli Treaty, signed between the British East India Company and Nepal in 1816. The treaty demarcated the river Mahakali as the boundary between the British Indian territories and Nepal. However, the exact origin of the river, and consequently the specific boundary alignment, remained ambiguous and contested.

This ambiguity has led to varying interpretations of the border by both countries. India claims that the Kalapani territory is part of its Uttarakhand state, relying on British-era maps and administrative records. Nepal, on the other hand, argues that the territory falls within its Sudurpashchim Pradesh, as per their interpretation of the Sugauli Treaty.

The strategic importance of the Kalapani region cannot be understated. It is located at the tri-junction of India, Nepal, and China, with close proximity to the crucial Lipulekh Pass. Control over the Kalapani region provides a vantage point for military and surveillance purposes, which is why both India and Nepal have a vested interest in asserting their territorial claims.

The Kalapani dispute has had implications on India-Nepal relations in multiple ways:

1. Diplomatic tensions: The exchange of maps and counter-claims by both countries has led to a war of words, with both sides accusing each other of violating their respective territorial sovereignty. This, in turn, has soured diplomatic relations between the two neighbors.

2. Security concerns: The dispute has led to sporadic instances of border tensions and skirmishes between the security forces of both countries. These occasional flare-ups are a cause for concern, considering the delicate security balance in the region.

3. Impact on people-to-people ties: The border dispute has also affected the lives of people living in the Kalapani region, with issues related to citizenship, property rights, and access to resources becoming contentious.

4. Regional dynamics: The dispute has also drawn the attention of other regional powers, particularly China. Nepal's increasing closeness to China has raised concerns in India about the potential security implications of the dispute.

In conclusion, the Kalapani dispute has opened a new front on the India-Nepal international border, leading to diplomatic, security, and people-related challenges. It is essential for both countries to engage in dialogue and negotiations to resolve the issue amicably, in the interest of regional stability and their long-standing bilateral relationship.

Q.6. (a) Why do disparities in development and incomes between regions persist in large countries like India? How does the recent ADP plan address the issue?

Disparities in development and incomes between regions persist in large countries like India due to several factors:

1. Historical factors: Regions that have been historically prosperous or have had better access to resources tend to continue their developmental trajectory. For instance, the western and southern parts of India have had better access to trade routes and fertile land, leading to their historical prosperity and continued development.

2. Infrastructure: Well-developed infrastructure such as transportation networks, communication systems, and energy supply is crucial for economic development. Regions with poor infrastructure often lag behind in terms of development and income generation. For example, the northeastern states of India have poor connectivity and infrastructure, leading to their relative underdevelopment.

3. Resource endowment: Regions with abundant natural resources tend to have higher levels of development and income. For instance, states like Gujarat and Maharashtra in India are rich in minerals and have better access to water resources, contributing to their higher levels of development.

4. Policy intervention: Government policies and interventions often play a significant role in regional development. Favorable policies and investments in certain regions may lead to their faster development, while other regions may lag behind due to a lack of focus or resources.

5. Social factors: Caste, religion, and gender disparities also contribute to regional income disparities. Regions with high levels of social discrimination and inequality may struggle to achieve equitable development and income distribution.

6. Education and skill levels: Regions with a higher literacy rate and skilled workforce tend to have higher levels of development and income. This is because a well-educated and skilled population is better equipped to participate in economic activities and contribute to the region's development.

The recent Atal Development Plan (ADP) aims to address these regional disparities in development and income in the following ways:

1. Infrastructure development: The ADP emphasizes the importance of infrastructure development, particularly in underdeveloped regions. It promotes investments in transportation, energy, and communication networks to improve connectivity and facilitate economic growth.

2. Skill development: The plan focuses on enhancing the skills and employability of the youth, particularly in underdeveloped regions. This is expected to help bridge the skill gap and provide better employment opportunities, thus contributing to income generation and development.

3. Regional connectivity: The ADP aims to improve regional connectivity through investments in road, rail, and air transport networks. This is expected to facilitate the movement of goods and people, fostering economic growth and reducing regional disparities.

4. Promotion of regional industries: The plan encourages the development of regional industries, particularly in resource-rich regions. This is expected to generate employment opportunities and contribute to income generation, thus reducing regional disparities.

5. Inclusive growth: The ADP emphasizes inclusive growth through targeted interventions and policies aimed at addressing social inequalities and promoting equitable development across regions.

In conclusion, regional disparities in development and income persist in large countries like India due to a combination of historical, infrastructural, resource-based, policy-related, and social factors. The recent Atal Development Plan seeks to address these disparities through targeted interventions in infrastructure, skill development, regional connectivity, industrial promotion, and inclusive growth.

(b) Critically examine the role of IRNSS-NavIC programme on the satellite navigation system of India.

The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), also known as Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC), is a regional satellite navigation system developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to provide accurate real-time positioning and timing services over India and its surrounding region, extending approximately 1,500 kilometers beyond its borders. It is intended to provide an indigenous, self-reliant, and reliable navigation system for various civilian and military applications.

Critically examining the role of the IRNSS-NavIC program on the satellite navigation system of India involves evaluating both its positive aspects and limitations.

Positive aspects of the IRNSS-NavIC program:

1. Reducing dependence on foreign systems: Prior to NavIC, India relied heavily on the Global Positioning System (GPS) operated by the United States or other satellite navigation systems like Russia's GLONASS and Europe's Galileo. NavIC provides India with an independent and reliable navigation system, reducing dependence on foreign systems and the potential risks associated with their disruption or failure.

2. Enhanced accuracy: NavIC provides positioning accuracy of better than 20 meters over the Indian landmass and surrounding region, which is superior to the accuracy provided by GPS (approximately 30 meters). This enhanced accuracy is crucial for various civilian and military applications, such as vehicle tracking, disaster management, agriculture, and scientific research.

3. Strategic importance: NavIC is of great strategic importance for India's defense and security. It provides India with an indigenous navigation system that is less vulnerable to jamming, spoofing, or other forms of interference by hostile forces. It also allows India to develop its own guided missiles and other advanced military systems that rely on satellite navigation.

4. Boost to the Indian space sector: The development and deployment of the NavIC system have provided a significant boost to India's space sector, showcasing its capabilities in satellite design, launch, and operations. It has also opened up new opportunities for collaboration and technology transfer with other countries and international organizations.

Limitations of the IRNSS-NavIC program:

1. Regional coverage: NavIC is a regional navigation system, and its coverage is limited to India and its immediate surroundings. This makes it less suitable for global applications and limits its utility for Indian users traveling or operating outside the coverage area. In contrast, GPS and other global systems provide worldwide coverage.

2. Limited adoption: Despite its potential benefits, the adoption of NavIC in various applications has been slow. Several factors contribute to this, such as the lack of awareness among users, the need for new devices and software compatible with NavIC, and the absence of a strong industry ecosystem to promote NavIC-based products and services.

3. Financial and technical challenges: The development and maintenance of a satellite navigation system are expensive and technologically challenging. India will need to invest significant resources in upgrading and expanding the NavIC system to keep up with technological advancements and evolving user needs.

4. International interoperability: While NavIC is designed to be interoperable with other satellite navigation systems, achieving seamless integration and compatibility with GPS, GLONASS, and Galileo may pose technical and diplomatic challenges. Ensuring smooth interoperability is crucial for users who rely on multiple systems for enhanced accuracy and redundancy.

In conclusion, the IRNSS-NavIC program has had a significant impact on the satellite navigation system of India by providing an indigenous, accurate, and reliable navigation system with strategic importance. However, there are limitations to its coverage, adoption, and interoperability that need to be addressed to maximize its potential benefits for India's civilian and military sectors.

(c) Examine the role of high population concentration in Indian slums in making them more vulnerable during pandemic conditions like the COVID-19.

The high population concentration in Indian slums plays a significant role in making them more vulnerable during pandemic conditions like COVID-19. The factors that contribute to this vulnerability can be examined through various dimensions such as the physical environment, socio-economic conditions, and the lack of access to healthcare facilities.

1. Physical Environment: Slums in India are characterized by overcrowding, inadequate housing, and poor sanitation facilities. The high population density in these areas makes it difficult for people to maintain social distancing, which is crucial for preventing the spread of the virus. For example, in Dharavi, one of Asia's largest slums located in Mumbai, around 700,000 people live in an area of just 2.1 square kilometers. The cramped living conditions make it easier for the virus to spread among the residents.

2. Socio-Economic Conditions: The majority of the residents in Indian slums are daily wage earners, who are often forced to work in the informal sector, where they lack job security and social protection measures. During the pandemic, many of these workers have been left without any source of income, forcing them to venture out in search of work despite the risks of contracting the virus. This further increases the vulnerability of slum dwellers to the pandemic.

3. Lack of Access to Healthcare Facilities: The healthcare infrastructure in Indian slums is often inadequate and ill-equipped to handle the large population. There is a shortage of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals, as well as a lack of essential medical supplies and equipment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, this has resulted in limited access to testing, treatment, and vaccination for the residents of slums. For example, in the early stages of the pandemic, Dharavi faced a severe shortage of testing kits and healthcare facilities, leading to a rapid rise in cases.

4. Limited Awareness and Education: Many slum dwellers may not have access to accurate information about the pandemic, preventive measures, and available healthcare facilities due to limited access to media, low literacy rates, and language barriers. This can result in misinformation and a lack of adherence to safety measures, such as wearing masks and practicing hand hygiene, further increasing the vulnerability of slum dwellers during the pandemic.

5. Inadequate Government Support: While the Indian government has implemented various relief measures and schemes to support the vulnerable population during the pandemic, the effectiveness of these measures in reaching the slum dwellers has been limited. Factors such as a lack of proper documentation, limited access to banking facilities, and challenges in identifying the eligible beneficiaries have hindered the delivery of financial and food aid to the residents of slums.

In conclusion, the high population concentration in Indian slums exacerbates the vulnerability of these communities during pandemic conditions like COVID-19. The lack of adequate healthcare facilities, poor living conditions, economic hardship, and limited access to information and government support contribute to the increased risk faced by slum dwellers. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from the government, civil society, and the private sector to improve the living conditions, healthcare infrastructure, and socio-economic status of the residents of Indian slums.

Q.7. (a) Discuss the salient characteristics of industrial complexes of Western India. Examine the impact of SEZ policy on the region.

Salient characteristics of industrial complexes in Western India:

1. Concentration of industries: Western India has a high concentration of industries, particularly in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Major industrial complexes such as the Mumbai-Pune industrial belt, the Gujarat Industrial Corridor, and the Golden Quadrilateral have contributed to the region's industrial development.

2. Diversified industrial base: The industrial complexes in Western India have a diversified industrial base, including textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, engineering, automobile, and information technology industries.

3. Ports and connectivity: Western India has a well-developed network of ports, such as Mumbai, Nhava Sheva, Mundra, and Kandla, which play a crucial role in the export and import of goods. The region is also well-connected through rail and road networks, making it easier to transport goods and raw materials.

4. Availability of skilled human resources: The region has a large pool of skilled and semi-skilled labor, which has attracted many industries to set up their units in the area. Several technical and management institutes have also contributed to the development of skilled human resources.

5. Presence of financial institutions and corporate houses: Western India is home to several financial institutions and corporate houses, such as the Reserve Bank of India, the Bombay Stock Exchange, and the National Stock Exchange, which have played an essential role in the growth of industries in the region.

Impact of SEZ policy on Western India:

1. Attraction of foreign investment: The SEZ policy has attracted significant foreign investment in the region, leading to the establishment of new industries and the expansion of existing ones. This has further boosted the region's industrial growth.

2. Employment generation: The SEZs have created numerous direct and indirect employment opportunities for the local population. This has helped in reducing unemployment and improving the standard of living of the people in the region.

3. Infrastructure development: The establishment of SEZs in Western India has led to the development of world-class infrastructure, including roads, ports, airports, and telecommunication facilities. This has improved the overall connectivity and competitiveness of the region.

4. Export promotion: SEZs have played a significant role in promoting exports from the region. The export-oriented units in these zones enjoy various incentives and tax exemptions, which have helped them become more competitive in the global market.

5. Technology transfer and skill development: The SEZs have facilitated the transfer of technology and knowledge from foreign investors to domestic companies. This has helped in upgrading the skills of the local workforce and increasing the overall technological capabilities of the region.

However, the SEZ policy has also faced criticism for issues such as land acquisition, displacement of local communities, and environmental concerns. It is essential to address these concerns to ensure the sustainable development of the region in the future.

(b) Discuss the emergence of linguistic regions and states in India.

The emergence of linguistic regions and states in India is a result of the linguistic diversity of the country and the historical, political, and cultural factors that have played a role in shaping its administrative divisions. The process of the formation of linguistic states in India can be traced back to the colonial period when the British administrators started organizing provinces based on linguistic lines. However, the formation of linguistic states gained momentum after India achieved independence in 1947.

The demand for linguistic states emerged from various regions and communities in the country as a way to protect and promote their language, culture, and identity. The formation of linguistic states was seen as a means to ensure equitable distribution of resources, administrative convenience, and better governance. It was also believed that linguistic states would facilitate the integration of diverse linguistic and cultural groups into the national mainstream.

1. Pre-independence period: During the British rule in India, provinces were created based on administrative convenience rather than linguistic or cultural considerations. However, the demand for linguistic provinces started emerging in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, the Indian National Congress, in its 1894 session, passed a resolution supporting the formation of linguistic provinces.

2. Post-independence period: After India's independence in 1947, the process of reorganization of states began. Initially, the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was set up in 1953 to examine the question of reorganizing states based on linguistic criteria. The SRC submitted its report in 1955, recommending the formation of new states and the reorganization of existing states based on linguistic affinity, administrative convenience, and economic considerations.

3. The first linguistic state – Andhra Pradesh: The first linguistic state to be formed in independent India was Andhra Pradesh in 1953. The state was carved out of the erstwhile Madras Presidency to meet the demands of the Telugu-speaking people. The formation of Andhra Pradesh set the stage for the creation of other linguistic states in the country.

4. Formation of linguistic states in the 1950s and 1960s: Following the recommendations of the SRC, several linguistic states were formed in the 1950s and 1960s. Some of the prominent linguistic states formed during this period include:

(a) Kerala: Formed in 1956, Kerala brought together Malayalam-speaking regions of Travancore, Cochin, and Malabar.

(b) Karnataka: Created in 1956 as Mysore State and later renamed Karnataka in 1973, this state united Kannada-speaking regions.

(c) Gujarat and Maharashtra: In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into Gujarat and Maharashtra, catering to Gujarati and Marathi-speaking populations, respectively.

(d) Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh: The 1966 Punjab Reorganisation Act led to the creation of three states – Punjab for Punjabi speakers, Haryana for Haryanvi speakers, and Himachal Pradesh for Himachali speakers.

5. Recent linguistic movements: The demand for linguistic states continues in contemporary India, with regions such as Vidarbha (in Maharashtra) and Gorkhaland (in West Bengal) seeking separate statehood based on linguistic considerations.

In conclusion, the emergence of linguistic regions and states in India has been a continuous process shaped by historical, political, and cultural factors. The formation of linguistic states has played a significant role in preserving the linguistic and cultural diversity of the country and promoting regional identities. However, it has also led to various challenges, including regionalism and inter-state disputes. It is essential to strike a balance between the need for linguistic states and the broader goal of national integration and unity.

(c) What are the drivers of urban sprawl around the major cities of the country? How have new investments in transport projects supported sprawl development?

Urban sprawl refers to the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas, often resulting in the development of low-density, automobile-dependent communities. In the context of India, urban sprawl is becoming increasingly evident around major cities, driven by various factors. The key drivers of urban sprawl around the major cities of India include:

1. Population growth: Rapid population growth in India has led to increased pressure on urban areas, leading to the expansion of cities to accommodate the growing population. This has resulted in the development of new residential and commercial areas on the outskirts of cities.

2. Rural to urban migration: The migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities and improved living conditions contributes to the expansion of cities. This leads to the growth of informal settlements and slums on the fringes of cities, further contributing to urban sprawl.

3. Land availability and affordability: The availability of affordable land on the outskirts of cities attracts developers and residents alike. This results in the development of new residential and commercial areas, which further contributes to the expansion of cities.

4. Economic liberalization: With the liberalization of the Indian economy, the private sector has played a significant role in the development of cities. The growth of industries and the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) on the peripheries of cities have attracted investments and led to the expansion of urban areas.

5. Real estate development: Real estate development, driven by speculative activities and increasing demand for housing, has led to the construction of residential and commercial complexes on the outskirts of cities, contributing to urban sprawl.

New investments in transport projects have supported sprawl development in the following ways:

1. Improved connectivity: The development of new transport infrastructure, such as highways, expressways, and metro rail systems, has improved connectivity between the city centers and peripheral areas. This has made it easier for people to commute to work, thereby encouraging the development of residential and commercial areas on the outskirts of cities.

2. Decongestion of city centers: New transport projects help in decongesting city centers by providing alternative routes and modes of transport. This reduces traffic congestion in central areas, making it more feasible for people to live and work in peripheral areas.

3. Attracting investments: Investment in transport infrastructure projects often attracts further investment in the areas surrounding the projects. For example, the development of metro rail systems in cities like Delhi and Bangalore has led to the growth of residential and commercial areas along the metro corridors, thereby supporting sprawl development.

4. Integration of peripheral areas: New transport projects help in integrating peripheral areas with the main city, making it easier for people to access essential services such as education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This promotes the development of these areas and contributes to urban sprawl.

5. Promotion of satellite towns: Investments in transport projects also encourage the development of satellite towns around major cities, which act as self-contained urban centers with their own employment and service provisions. These satellite towns are connected to the main city through transport infrastructure, further contributing to urban sprawl.

In conclusion, the drivers of urban sprawl in India are complex and multifaceted, involving a combination of demographic, economic, and infrastructural factors. New investments in transport projects have played a significant role in supporting sprawl development by improving connectivity, attracting investments, and integrating peripheral areas with the main city. However, uncontrolled urban sprawl can have negative consequences on the environment, resource utilization, and overall quality of life. Therefore, it is essential to promote sustainable urban development practices to strike a balance between meeting the growing demands of urbanization and ensuring a healthy living environment for the population.

Q.8.(a) How do agro-climatic and land capability indicators assist in macro-agricultural regionalisation of India? Illustrate with an appropriate map.

Agro-climatic and land capability indicators play an essential role in the macro-agricultural regionalization of India because they provide crucial information on the suitability of land for various agricultural activities. These indicators help in understanding the potential for agricultural production, resource utilization, and environmental conservation in different regions of the country.

Agro-climatic indicators include factors like temperature, rainfall, humidity, and sunshine hours that affect the growth and development of crops. These climatic factors determine the type of crops that can be grown, the cropping pattern, and the agricultural productivity in a particular region. Land capability indicators include factors like soil type, fertility, texture, depth, drainage, erosion potential, and water-holding capacity. These factors determine the potential of land to support different types of agricultural activities and its long-term sustainability.

Macro-agricultural regionalization of India involves dividing the country into different agricultural regions based on the agro-climatic and land capability indicators. This helps in better planning and management of agricultural activities, taking into account the specific requirements and limitations of each region.

The Planning Commission of India has identified 15 agro-climatic zones in the country, which are:

1. Western Himalayan Region
2. Eastern Himalayan Region
3. Lower Gangetic Plain Region
4. Middle Gangetic Plain Region
5. Upper Gangetic Plain Region
6. Trans-Gangetic Plain Region
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills Region
8. Central Plateau and Hills Region
9. Western Plateau and Hills Region
10. Southern Plateau and Hills Region
11. East Coast Plain and Hills Region
12. West Coast Plain and Ghats Region
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills Region
14. Western Dry Region
15. Island Region

These agro-climatic zones have distinct climatic and land capability characteristics, which determine the type of agriculture practiced in each zone. For example, the Western Himalayan Region has a cold and temperate climate, with heavy rainfall and deep, well-drained soil. This region is suitable for growing temperate fruits like apples, pears, and cherries, as well as for cultivation of crops like maize and wheat.

Similarly, the Eastern Plateau and Hills Region has a warm and humid climate, with moderate to heavy rainfall and lateritic soil. This region is suitable for growing rice, pulses, oilseeds, and horticultural crops like vegetables and fruits.

Thus, agro-climatic and land capability indicators play a crucial role in the macro-agricultural regionalization of India, as they help in understanding the potential for agricultural production and resource utilization in different regions. This, in turn, enables better planning and management of agricultural activities, ensuring sustainable development and food security in the country.

(b) Discuss the geopolitical significance of Quad in the Indo-Pacific realm with reference to marine trade in the region.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is a strategic forum comprising the United States, Japan, India, and Australia. The Quad was initiated in 2007 but gained momentum in 2017 as a response to the increasing assertiveness of China in the Indo-Pacific region. The geopolitical significance of the Quad in the Indo-Pacific realm can be discussed in light of its impact on marine trade in the region.

1. Ensuring Freedom of Navigation and Overflight: The Quad emphasizes the importance of upholding international laws and norms, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This is crucial for maintaining freedom of navigation and overflight, which are the lifelines of global trade. The South China Sea, for instance, witnesses over $3 trillion of trade passing through its waters annually. By promoting adherence to UNCLOS, the Quad aims to ensure that critical sea lanes remain open and accessible to all countries, thereby facilitating uninterrupted marine trade in the region.

2. Countering China's Belt and Road Initiative: China's ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aims to create a vast network of infrastructure projects, including ports and maritime routes, to boost global trade. However, there are concerns that the BRI could lead to a China-centric economic order and increase the strategic foothold of China in the region. By offering an alternative vision for regional cooperation and connectivity, the Quad seeks to balance China's influence in the Indo-Pacific and provide countries with more options for trade and investment. For example, the Quad members have launched their infrastructure initiatives, such as the Blue Dot Network and the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor, which focus on transparent, sustainable, and high-quality projects.

3. Enhancing Maritime Domain Awareness: The Quad countries have been working together to enhance maritime domain awareness (MDA) in the Indo-Pacific. MDA refers to the effective understanding and monitoring of the maritime environment, including the movement of vessels, weather patterns, and marine resources. Improved MDA can help in identifying potential threats to marine trade, such as piracy, smuggling, and illegal fishing. The Quad countries have also conducted joint naval exercises, such as the Malabar Exercise, which allows for better coordination and interoperability in ensuring the security of vital sea lanes and promoting safe and secure marine trade.

4. Fostering Economic Cooperation: The Quad countries have immense potential for economic cooperation, given their combined GDP of over $50 trillion. By deepening trade ties and promoting regional economic integration, the Quad can create new opportunities for growth and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific. This could further enhance the region's role as a critical hub for global marine trade.

5. Addressing Non-Traditional Security Threats: The Quad also recognizes the importance of addressing non-traditional security threats, such as climate change, natural disasters, and pandemics, which can have significant implications for marine trade. By fostering cooperation in areas such as disaster relief, humanitarian assistance, and sustainable development, the Quad aims to build a more resilient Indo-Pacific that can better withstand and recover from such challenges.

In conclusion, the Quad holds significant geopolitical importance in the Indo-Pacific realm by ensuring freedom of navigation, countering China's influence, enhancing maritime domain awareness, fostering economic cooperation, and addressing non-traditional security threats. By doing so, it aims to create a stable, open, and inclusive regional order that facilitates the growth and security of marine trade in the region.

(c) Evaluate the role of the National Food Security Act, 2003 in providing access of food to the poor in India.

The National Food Security Act (NFSA) of 2013 in India is a landmark legislation that aims to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of the country's population, focusing primarily on the poor and vulnerable sections of society. The Act has been instrumental in addressing the issue of food security in India, ensuring access to adequate quantity and quality of food at affordable prices for the target population. This evaluation will discuss the role of the NFSA in providing access to food for the poor in India through its various provisions and the challenges faced in its implementation.

1. Coverage and entitlements: The NFSA covers about 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population in India, totaling around 800 million people. The Act classifies the beneficiaries into two categories: Priority Households (PHH) and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households. The PHH beneficiaries are entitled to receive 5 kg of food grains per person per month at subsidized prices, while AAY households, which represent the poorest of the poor, receive 35 kg of food grains per household per month.

2. Subsidized prices: The NFSA has fixed the prices of food grains at highly subsidized rates, with rice at ₹3 per kg, wheat at ₹2 per kg, and coarse grains at ₹1 per kg. These prices are significantly lower than the market prices, making it affordable for the poor to access food.

3. Women empowerment: The Act emphasizes the empowerment of women by designating the eldest adult woman in the household as the head of the family for the purpose of issuing ration cards. This provision ensures that women have direct control over the household's food entitlements, thus promoting gender equality and empowering women.

4. Nutritional support to children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers: The NFSA provides for various provisions to ensure the nutritional security of children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers. This includes free meals and nutritional support through schemes such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme for children, as well as maternity benefits for pregnant and lactating women.

5. Grievance redressal and transparency: The Act mandates the establishment of State Food Commissions, District Grievance Redressal Officers, and Vigilance Committees at various levels to ensure transparency and accountability in the implementation of the Act. This mechanism ensures that the grievances of the beneficiaries are addressed effectively and in a time-bound manner.

However, despite the significant strides made by the NFSA, there remain certain challenges in its implementation:

1. Identification of beneficiaries: The identification of eligible beneficiaries remains a critical challenge, with many eligible households being excluded from the list while ineligible households continue to receive benefits.

2. Inefficient Public Distribution System (PDS): The PDS, which is the primary mechanism for the distribution of food grains under the NFSA, suffers from leakages, corruption, and inefficiencies. This often leads to the diversion of food grains meant for the poor to the open market.

3. Nutritional quality: The NFSA focuses primarily on providing access to staple food grains, but there is a need to emphasize the importance of a diverse and nutritious diet for the poor, including pulses, millets, and fortified food grains.

4. Financial sustainability: The high subsidies provided under the NFSA put a significant financial burden on the government, raising concerns about the long-term sustainability of the program.

In conclusion, the National Food Security Act, 2013, has played a crucial role in ensuring access to food for the poor in India. However, to further enhance its effectiveness, there is a need to address the challenges in its implementation by strengthening the PDS, improving the identification of beneficiaries, and focusing on nutritional quality. Additionally, innovative solutions such as Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) of food subsidies can be explored to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the program.