Q. 5.(a) Discuss the impact of Forest Rights Act, 2006 on the local forest communities in India.
The Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006 is a landmark legislation aimed at addressing historical injustices and recognizing the rights of local forest communities. It has not only recognized the rights of these communities but has also influenced their relationship with forest resources and the environment.
The impact of the Forest Rights Act, on the local forest communities is as follows:
Promoted “spatial justice”
FRA shifted the power dynamics in favour of local forest communities by empowering Gram Sabhas to make decisions about forest management and land use -Promoted better forest governance.
Helped in preserving Ecosystem services by Joint Forest Management (JFM)
Local communities gained legal rights over forests, and become more committed to conservation efforts
For e.g. The Kani tribal community in Kerala, played a significant role in protecting the biodiversity of the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve after securing their rights under FRA.
Promoted local growth foci (RP Mishra model) in the region
FRA has enhanced the livelihoods of local communities by providing access to forest resources.
Reduced their dependency on seasonal migration to urban areas thus promoting diffused and sustainable urbanisation
For e.g. In the Mendha Lekha village in Maharashtra, the FRA rights recognition has led to improved income from the sale of non-timber forest produce and reduced out-migration.
Reinforced the “place identity” (Yi-FuTuan)
It focuses on the cultural and emotional connections people have with their surroundings.
FRA has helped in preserving the cultural and spatial identities of forest communities.
It recognizes the importance of forests in the cultural identity of these communities.
For e.g. The Dongria Kondh tribe in the Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha continues to practice their cultural rituals and protect their sacred groves after securing forest rights.
However, there have been many challenges in FRA as well, such as:
Implementation challenges include delays in processing claims, inadequate awareness among forest communities, and bureaucratic hurdles.
Potential conflicts between forest rights and conservation goals, especially in protected areas. For e.g., Conflict between The Dongria Kondh tribe of the Niyamgiri Hills of Odisha and Vedanta resources.
Mistrust from the Forest Department results in conflicts.
Certain marginalized forest communities, such as nomadic and pastoralist groups, have not been effectively covered under the FRA.
Establishing a dedicated Forest Rights Commission to oversee the implementation of the FRA and to address the grievances of forest-dwelling communities, increasing the budget for the implementation of the FRA, and amending the FRA to address any loopholes that may be exploited by vested interests can be a good way forward.
(b) Can the Panchayat Raj institutions play a role in grassroot level planning in India? If yes, discuss how.
Panchayati Raj institutions, as a fundamental block in multilevel planning, can play a significant role in grassroots-level planning in India by facilitating decentralization of power and empowering local communities.
PRIs facilitate grassroots level planning in India by:
Promoting participatory planning
Panchayats provide a platform for active community participation Importance of community participation in planning and decision-making has been a central theme in the works of Arnstein, Sherry R. (1969) who introduced the “Ladder of Citizen Participation”) ensuring that local development projects align with the actual needs and priorities of the people.
For e.g., Kerala’s “People’s Plan Campaign”- panchayats given control over local planning and resources, resulted in a bottom-up approach to development.
Promoting place-based approaches (David Harvey and Edward W. Soja)in regional development to address local needs and aspirations
For e.g.in West Bengal, the “Sabar Shouchagar” program, implemented by Gram Panchayats, focuses on constructing toilets to improve sanitation and addresses place-specific issues.
Promoting spatial justice (Edward Soja)
PRIs are instrumental in ensuring that resources and development initiatives are distributed equitably among different communities within their geographical areas.
For e.g., Kerala’s Kudumbashree program, implemented through PRIs, focuses on empowering women in various localities, thereby promoting spatial justice and bottom-up development
Promoting Growth Foci (RP Mishra)
PRIs can channel resources and infrastructure development into identified growth poles, thereby promoting economic activities and overall planning and development.
Empowering marginalized Communities
Panchayats are instrumental in empowering marginalized groups, such as women and Scheduled Castes and Tribes, by providing them with opportunities for leadership and decisionmaking thus enabling grassroots planning
For e.g., Kudumbashree in Kerala is a women’s self-help group network that operates at the panchayat level, enabling women to engage in various development activities and incomegeneration projects.
Encouraging Rural Development
Panchayats are critical in the implementation of various rural development schemes and programs, including those related to education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
The success of initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, MGNREGA, and the National Rural Livelihood Mission underscores the vital role Panchayats play in shaping the future of rural India.
(c) Discuss the significance of new ports on the Western Coast of India on the external trade of the country.
The establishment of new ports on the Western Coast of India has significant geographical and economic implications for the country’s external trade. These ports play a pivotal role in reducing transportation costs, connecting production centers to global markets, and expanding the hinterlands they serve.
New ports on the Western Coast of India Act as a catalyst to external trade due to:
Strategic location and multimodal connectivity
New ports on the Western Coast, such as Mundra Port and Adani Port in Gujarat, have strategic locations near industrial clusters and resource-rich regions.
They serve as gateways to trade with the Middle East, Europe, and Africa, reducing the distance for goods transportation making them attractive destinations for industries and exporters (Alfred Weber’s Theory of Industrial Location)
Connectivity and linkages with global trade networks (The Network theory)
Ports like Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai and the upcoming Vadhavan Port in Maharashtra are critical nodes in global trade networks.
For e.g. The International Maritime Executive Committee (IMEC) highlights the critical role of global shipping and trade organizations in facilitating the movement of goods through major ports like Jawaharlal Nehru Port and the upcoming Vadhavan Port.
These ports serve as key entry and exit points for goods to and from India, connecting the country to international trade routes.
Proximity to potential markets
New ports increase trade volumes by attracting cargo traffic due to their proximity to potential markets (The gravity model- trade volume between two places is directly related to their economic size and inversely related to the distance between them)
For e.g., Port of Kandla in Gujarat handles a significant share of India’s external trade, benefiting from its proximity to the Gulf and European markets.
Hinterland connectivity
Ports on the Western Coast benefit from easy hinterland connectivity through road, rail, and inland waterways facilitating trade within the country and beyond
For e.g., JNPT is well connected to Pune industrial region through NH-160 (Mumbai-Nashik Expressway), The Konkan Railway route provides connectivity to the western coastal areas, further enhancing JNPT’s hinterland connectivity, making it a vital hub for trade in the western part of India
Function as local growth centers
The development of new ports often leads to the growth of associated logistics and industrial hubs, spurring economic activities in their vicinity thereby serving as local growth centres and aiding external trade.
For e.g. The Mundra Special Economic Zone (SEZ) near the Port of Mundra, has attracted investments, contributing to regional economic development and facilitating enhanced and streamlined trade
These ports play a pivotal role in reducing transportation costs, connecting production centers to global markets, and expanding the hinterlands they serve. By facilitating efficient trade routes, they contribute to the country’s economic growth and global competitiveness.
(d) How would decline in Total Fertility Rate (TFR) below the replacement level, in many states of India affect the future population structure of the country?
India’s TFR has fallen below the replacement level of 2.1, population is no longer growing at a sustainable rate. There is significant variation in TFR across states in India. For example, the TFR in Bihar (3.0) is more than twice the TFR in Kerala (1.8), which would affect the future population structure of the country in significant ways.
Impact of declining TFR below replacement level on future population structure of the country
A TFR below the replacement level indicates that many states in India are moving toward the later stages of demographic transition, where birth rates decline and population growth stabilizes
For e.g., Kerala with TFR 1.6 to 1.7 is in later stages of demographic transition implying high socio-economic development and stable population growth.
A lower TFR results in a higher proportion of elderly individuals relative to the working-age population.
This creates various challenges-demand for healthcare services, social services, and pensions.
For e.g., TFR in Tamil Nadu is 1.76 and the average age of the Tamil Nadu population is 37.2 years, slightly higher than the national average of 28.2 years (Sample Registration System-2023)
A declining TFR would result in a lower dependency ratio as there are relatively more people in the working-age group to support dependents.
For e.g., TFR in Karnataka is 1.7 and Dependency ratio in Karnataka in 2023 is 46.0 which is less than national average of 59.4
A declining TFR means fewer young people entering the labour force, can have a detrimental effect on economic growth and labour market dynamics.
For e.g., The Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) in Kerala is 55.2% as of 2021-22. This is slightly lower than the national average LFPR of 58.4%
Over time, the population pyramid will begin to invert, meaning that the top of the pyramid (the elderly population) will become larger than the base (the young population).
For e.g. The population pyramid of Kerala is already inverting, with the elderly population becoming larger than the young population.
A declining TFR below the replacement level in many states of India represents a shift toward demographic stability and an aging population. Understanding these changes is crucial for policymakers as they plan for the future and consider strategies to address the evolving needs of the population.
(e) Kalapani dispute has opened a new front on the India-Nepal international border. Explain.
The Kalapani dispute is a border dispute between India and Nepal over a 373 square kilometer area in the Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand). The dispute stems from different interpretations of the origin of the Kali River, forming a border between the two countries. It is distinct from older border disputes that have existed like Susta, Kakarbhitta, and Limpiyadhura thus has opened a new front.
The Kalapani dispute has opened a new front on the India-Nepal international border for the following reasons:
The Kalapani dispute has opened a new front as it is different from the older fronts that have existed e.g.
Susta where A dispute in the Terai region, both countries have claimed areas.
Kakarbhitta A border town where disputes have arisen over the no-man’s-land called “Gunji.”
Limpiyadhura
A region that was part of the larger Kalapani dispute, involving differing interpretations of the river boundary
The Kalapani area holds strategic importance:
Due to its proximity to the China-India-Nepal trijunction
Provides access to the Lipulekh Pass- a crucial route for Kailash Mansarovar in Tibet.
In context of India’s security and connectivity to the Tibet Autonomous Region.
The Kalapani dispute centres on differing claims regarding the origin of the Kali River (Mahakali River in Nepal).
Nepal asserts the river originates closer to the Limpiyadhura pass; India argues for a more southerly origin.
These conflicting views result in disputes over the eastern boundary, with Nepal claiming more territory to the east than India is willing to acknowledge.
It has raised concerns about India’s intentions and its commitment to respecting Nepal’s sovereignty.
It has strained relations between the two countries, which have traditionally been close.
The dispute has also become a domestic political issue in both countries, making it more difficult to resolve.
Bilateral negotiations, conducting joint surveys and Hydro-Geological Studies, creating a joint commission, and enhancing People-to-People engagement are some possible solutions to the Kalapani Dilemma for India-Nepal.
Q.6. (a) Why do disparities in development and incomes between regions persist in large countries like India? How does the recent ADP plan address the issue?
As per AE Smailes, the regional imbalance is the phenomenon where certain areas are well-developed while others are not. For a country as vast and diverse as India regional disparities are very natural.
Disparities in development and incomes between regions in large countries like India are due to:
Uneven resource distribution
Uneven Industrialization and Infrastructure development
Variations in Access to Markets
Physiographic variations
Shape of the country
Political heterogeneity of the country
Uneven resource distribution and resource curse
Regions with abundant natural resources may experience faster economic growth compared to resource-poor regions.
For e.g., Gujrat’s rich natural resources, including a strategic coastline and mineral reservesHigh per capita income (PCI in 2022-23:250100 Rupees) and rapid economic development.
In contrast, Bihar’s resource limitations, marked by water and soil issues-lower per capita income (PCI in 2022-23:49470 Rupees) and greater poverty rates
Uneven Industrialization and Infrastructure development (Higher levels of primacy)
Investments in industrialization and infrastructure development tend to be concentrated in certain areas, leading to disparities in economic activity and job opportunities.
This regional bias is partly result of colonial legacy which resulted in development of few primate cities like Delhi, Kolkata at cost of others
Physiographic variations
Differences in terrain, climate, and geographical features, have contributed to significant regional disparities in economic development
For e.g. The Himalayan region-rugged terrain, less suitable for agriculture and industrial development.
While the Indo-Gangetic Plains, known for fertile alluvial soil and flat landscapes, more conducive to farming, higher agricultural productivity and greater population density.
Shape of the country
India’s prorupted shape, characterized by the presence of a narrow corridor of land connecting the main territory to the northeastern states, has contributed to regional disparities due to Connectivity Challenges, Isolation, Limited Trade Opportunities etc.
Political heterogeneity of the country
Political heterogeneity in large countries can result in variations in policy decisions and resource allocation, leading to regional disparities based on differing political ideologies, priorities, and interests.
For e.g., Kerala’s left-wing policies have prioritized social welfare, leading to high literacy and strong healthcare
Gujarat’s right-wing focus on industrial growth has attracted investment, driving economic development.
The Aspirational District Program (ADP) is a specific initiative launched by the Government of India to address regional disparities Here’s how the Aspirational District Program addresses the issue of regional disparities:
Identification of Underdeveloped Districts
The program relies on data-driven analysis to identify specific challenges and areas that require intervention.
A baseline ranking is established for these districts to measure progress over time.
The ADP introduces a competitive element among districts.
It encourages districts to compete with each other for better rankings, which can result in more focused efforts to improve development indicators.
The program encourages the sharing of best practices and innovative solutions among districts.
This enables districts to learn from each other’s successes and adapt effective strategies.
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), North East Industrial Development Scheme (NEIDS), Special Assistance for States with Hilly and Difficult Terrain, North East Special Infrastructure Development Scheme (NESIDS) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) are steps in the right direction to overcome regional and income inequalities in India.
(b) Critically examine the role of IRNSS-NavIC programme on the satellite navigation system of India.
The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), with an operational name of NavIC, is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system developed by ISRO that provides accurate realtime positioning and timing services. Covers India and a region extending 1,500 km around it. NavIC plays a significant role in India’s satellite navigation system such as
Maintaining Strategic Autonomy and National Security
The development of NavIC has enhanced India’s strategic autonomy and national security by reducing its dependence on foreign navigation systems like GPS-reliable navigation capabilities even in times of international conflicts
Reinforcing Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
The possession of an indigenous satellite navigation system reinforces India’s sovereignty over its territory and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).
It allows for precise navigation and monitoring of activities in these areas, which is essential for safeguarding territorial integrity.
Robust Regional Development and Planning
The satellite navigation system enhances the accessibility and connectivity of central places (Central Place Theory- Walter Christaller) both urban and rural, by providing precise location and navigation information leading to more efficient spatial distribution of services and resources across regions.
Technological Advancements and Progress Towards Drive to Maturity (Rostow’s Economic Development Model)
The economic benefits and technological advancements stemming from the use of NavIC can contribute to India’s jump to the age of high mass consumption from current drive to maturity phase
Disaster Management and Mitigation
It provides real-time information on the location of disaster-affected areas, improving the efficiency of relief and rescue operations in the event of natural disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, and floods.
Better Urban Planning
NavIC benefits transportation, infrastructure, and urban planning.
It facilitates the development of intelligent transportation systems, logistics, and location based services, leading to better connectivity and efficient use of resources.
Promotes Sustainable Agriculture and Resource Management
The system aids in precision agriculture and resource management.
Farmers can use NavIC for precise crop planning, irrigation management, and soil fertility assessment, contributing to increased agricultural productivity.
Provide Geospatial Data and Promote Ecosystem Management
NavIC contributes to geospatial data collection and environmental monitoring.
It enables the tracking of deforestation, land use changes, and biodiversity conservation efforts, aligning with geographical concepts related to land cover and land use change.
Encourage Tourism and Cultural Heritage Preservation
The system benefits the tourism industry by providing accurate navigation information for tourists and enhancing the preservation of cultural heritage sites through geospatial data and mapping.
However, there are many challenges of implementing NavIC in India such as:
NaVIC is regional in character, its range is very narrow covering areas in close vicinity of India, which makes it a less favorable option for global applications.
Technical and infrastructure challenges, including technology integration and development of supporting infrastructure.
User awareness and adoption hurdles, as many may not be familiar with or have adopted NavIC for their applications.
Device compatibility and standardization issues, necessitate affordable NavIC- enabled devices and consistent standards.
Policy, security, and international cooperation challenges, requiring appropriate regulations, data security measures, and interoperability efforts.
To address the challenges, India must invest in NavIC technology, engage stakeholders, develop policies, and promote awareness, device compatibility, and innovation for successful implementation and widespread adoption.
(c) Examine the role of high population concentration in Indian slums in making them more vulnerable during pandemic conditions like the COVID-19.
The view that high-population concentration areas are more vulnerable to environmental positive checks pertains to the Neo-Malthusian viewpoint, whereby they argue that due to a breach of environmental carrying capacity, these areas become more vulnerable to positive checks.
Role Of high population concentration in Indian slums in making them more vulnerable during pandemic conditions are as follows:
High Rural to Urban Migration
In slums, high population density results from high rural-to-urban migration, with people settling in these areas in search of employment and better livelihoods.
This is because of-Fewer growth poles (Metropolitan areas), Unsustainable urbanisation, poverty and high unemployment
This cause high population density-weak following of social distancing norms-spread of contagious diseases like COVID 19
Spatial Diffusion of Disease
High population concentration in slums, coupled with limited space and inadequate sanitation, facilitates the rapid spread of infectious diseases like COVID-19, as close human contact becomes difficult to avoid leading to spatial diffusion of diseases.
Compromised Spatial Accessibility of Healthcare Services
Spatial accessibility theory focuses on how easily people can access essential services, including healthcare.
Slum populations often lack access to quality healthcare facilities, with overburdened and understaffed clinics, hampering timely diagnosis and treatment, and increasing vulnerability during pandemics.
Spatial Inequality and Weaker Environmental Justice
Slums typically lack proper infrastructure, safe water supply, and sanitation facilities leading to spatial disparities
These disparities lead to substandard living conditions, making residents more vulnerable to diseases like COVID-19.
Social Networks and Community Structures Making Slums More Vulnerable
Close-knit communities are common in slum areas due to high population concentration, while these networks offer social support, they can also lead to close physical interactions that facilitate disease transmission.
Neglected Reginal Development and Planning in Slums
Slum housing is often overcrowded and lacks proper ventilation, making it challenging to maintain social distancing and reduce the risk of infection transmission.
Vulnerabilities Due to Nature of Rural-Urban Continuum
Slum residents may experience food insecurity due to limited income sources and inadequate access to affordable food (due to immediate transition of slum dwellers from rural to urban landscape) leading to weakened immune systems and increased susceptibility to diseases.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP), Smart Cities Mission, Pradhan Mantri Shramik Setu Yojana (PMSSY) are steps in the right direction taken by the government to transform slums in India.
Q.7. (a) Discuss the salient characteristics of industrial complexes of Western India. Examine the impact of SEZ policy on the region.
Western India’s industrial complexes, spanning Maharashtra and Gujarat, are dynamic hubs for diverse manufacturing sectors, contributing significantly to India’s economic growth and innovation.
Salient characteristics of industrial complexes of Western India are as follows:
Diverse Industries:
Western India is home to a wide range of industries- textiles, petrochemicals, information technology, and pharmaceuticals, contributing to the region’s economic strength.
For e.g., Mumbai, the financial capital-hub for industries
Surat-diamond polishing and textile industries
Availability of Skilled Labour Force:
Huge pool of skills and semi-skilled labour due to in migration from nearby states
Infrastructure Development:
The region has seen significant infrastructure development, with well-connected ports, highways, and airports, facilitating the movement of goods and people
For e.g. The Mumbai-Pune Expressway a prime example of world-class highway infrastructurewhile Gujarat’s ports like Kandla and Mundra have seen significant expansion to facilitate trade.
Special Economic Zones (SEZs):
The SEZ policy, introduced in 2000, had a notable impact on the region. SEZs offer tax incentives and streamlined regulations to attract foreign investment and promote exports.
For e.g. The Mahindra World City in Chennai is a successful IT SEZ attracting global tech companies and The Jamnagar SEZ in Gujarat houses a massive oil refinery and petrochemical complex
They act as major growth poles in western India
SEZs have driven export-oriented growth in Western India, fostering industries like IT and software services, while proximity to major ports like Kandla, Mundra, JNPT have ensured smooth import and export
For e.g. The IT parks in Pune, such as Hinjewadi, have become IT outsourcing destinations serving global clients
All this has enabled them to act as major growth poles in the region.
Employment Generation and Agglomeration effect
The industrial complexes in the region have generated employment opportunities, contributing to urbanization and a rise in the standard of living for many.
For e.g. The BPO and IT industry in Bengaluru employs a large workforce, offering employment opportunities.
Urban agglomerations, such as Mumbai and Ahmedabad, serve as major industrial hubs.
The concentration of industries in these urban centers is influenced by factors like transportation networks, labor availability, and market proximity.
Impact of SEZ Policy in Western India is as follows:
Economic Growth:
The export value from the Mundra SEZ in Gujarat has surged, contributing significantly to economic growth.
The IT sector in Hyderabad’s HITEC City has witnessed impressive revenue growth.
Employment Opportunities:
The Dhirubhai Ambani Knowledge City SEZ in Mumbai has generated jobs in sectors like finance and IT.
The Shendra-Bidkin Industrial Area SEZ near Aurangabad has created employment in manufacturing and trade.
Attraction for Multinationals:
Tech giants like Infosys and TCS have established operations in the IT SEZs of Pune.
Ford, Hyundai, and BMW have manufacturing plants in Tamil Nadu’s automotive SEZs.
Infrastructure Development:
The development of the Chennai Ennore Port SEZ has led to enhanced port infrastructure and logistics.
The establishment of the Dahej SEZ in Gujarat has seen the construction of industrial estates and supportive infrastructure.
Regional Disparities:
Despite SEZ development, some remote areas in Western India may still lag in terms of industrial growth, such as parts of rural Maharashtra or Rajasthan.
Western India’s industrial complexes have flourished due to diverse industries and the SEZ policy, fostering economic growth and employment opportunities. Yet, challenges remain, and policymakers must address these to ensure sustainable and inclusive development in the region.
(b) Discuss the emergence of linguistic regions and states in India.
The emergence of linguistic regions and states in India is a significant chapter in the country’s post-independence history. However, an important determinant of the origin of linguistic regions is the linguistic and cultural diversity within the country, which had its roots in the historical linguistic hearths of India.
The emergence of linguistic regions and states in India due to India’s cultural diversity and linguistic hearths:
Dravidian Linguistic Hearth (South India):
The ancient Dravidian culture is associated with the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s oldest urban civilizations.
Gave rise to languages like Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.
Linguistic diversity in South India played a crucial role in the demand for linguistic states.
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala were created to preserve the distinct Dravidian languages and cultures.
Indo-Aryan Linguistic Hearth (North India):
Roots of the Indo-Aryan linguistic hearth can be traced back to the ancient Indo-European migrations that took place around the 2nd millennium BCE
Gave rise to languages like Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi, and Gujarati.
The demand for linguistic states emerged due to the desire to promote regional languages.
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, and Gujarat were among the states formed based on linguistic lines.
Tibeto-Burman Linguistic Hearth (Northeast India):
Northeast India is home to a linguistic hearth of Tibeto-Burman languages like Assamese, Bodo, and Manipuri.
The region saw the formation of states such as Assam, Manipur, and Nagaland to protect the linguistic and cultural identities of the people in the Northeast. The emergence of linguistic regions and states in India as a result of post-independence linguistic rearrangements:
Following independence, the Indian government recognized the importance of linguistic identity in governance and administration.
led to the reorganization of states in 1956-linguistic reorganization. thereby fostering a stronger sense of cultural and linguistic identity.
Key milestones in this process
Creation of states like Andhra Pradesh (Telugu-speaking)
Karnataka (Kannada-speaking)
Kerala (Malayalam-speaking).
The linguistic reorganization of states and the emergence of linguistic regions have helped preserve and promote various regional languages, cultures, and traditions.
(c) What are the drivers of urban sprawl around the major cities of the country? How have new investments in transport projects supported sprawl development?
Urban sprawl is the unplanned, often low-density expansion of urban areas into surrounding undeveloped or rural land. Urban sprawl around major cities in a country can be driven by several factors.
Key drivers of urban sprawl around the major cities are as follows:
Population Growth
Leapfrogging
Economic Opportunities
Real Estate Development
Government Policies
Edge Cities
Transport Nodes and Hubs
Transportation-Induced Agglomeration
Population Growth (Demographic Factor):
As cities experience population growth, there is an increased demand for housing and services.
Cities act as central places that provide goods and services. (Centre Place Theory)
As cities grow and their populations increase, there is a need for additional settlements on the urban periphery to meet demand, contributing to sprawl.
Leapfrogging is a concept that refers to the development of suburban areas beyond the immediate outskirts of the city.
Transport investments can facilitate leapfrog development by making previously distant areas accessible for housing and commercial purposes.
Economic Opportunities (Economic Factor)
Economic activities and job opportunities often concentrate in urban cores.
People seeking employment may move to suburbs while maintaining a connection to job centres through transport networks.
Real Estate Development (Land Use Factor):
Developers often find it more cost-effective to purchase and develop land on the outskirts of cities, where land is cheaper and more readily available.
This contributes to sprawl.
Government Policies (Political Factor):
Government policies, such as tax incentives for suburban development or investment in suburban infrastructure, can encourage sprawl.
Edge Cities (Post modern urbanism)
The concept of edge cities, which are large suburban areas with their own economic and cultural significance, can drive sprawl as these areas develop outside the urban core.
Transport Nodes and Hubs
Transport projects that create nodes or hubs in suburban areas can act as magnets for development, fostering sprawl around these transport centres.
New investments in transport projects have supported sprawl development in following manner
Hoyt’s Sector Model describes the growth of cities in sectors or corridors along transportation routes.
Investment in transport projects can lead to the expansion of these corridors and facilitate urban sprawl along major transportation arteries
For e.g. The growth of sectors along transportation corridors is evident in Chennai, where the Old Mahabalipuram Road (OMR) corridor has seen significant urban expansion.
Multiple Nuclei Model (Harris and Ulman) explains that cities have multiple centres of activity.
Investments in transport projects can create new nuclei or centres in the suburbs, leading to the growth of secondary urban areas.
For e.g., Greater London’s multiple nuclei include Canary Wharf-become a major financial district outside the traditional city centre.
Transportation-Induced Agglomeration
New transport projects can stimulate economic activities in previously remote areas, leading to the development of new settlements and sprawl.
For example, new highways can attract logistics and distribution centres.
Investment in transport infrastructure in areas like Bengaluru’s International Airport region has spurred the development of an economic base, attracted IT companies and led to urban sprawl Economic Base Theory (Perroux)
National Urban Policy (NUP), Smart Cities Mission, Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Policy, Land Pooling Policy, Greenbelt Development are a step in right direction.
Q.8.(a) How do agro-climatic and land capability indicators assist in macro-agricultural regionalisation of India? Illustrate with an appropriate map.
Agro-climatic and land capability indicators are essential tools for macro-agricultural regionalization in India, as they help in classifying and planning agricultural regions based on geographic concepts related to climate, soil, and terrain.
Agro-climatic and land capability indicators assist in the macro-agricultural regionalization of India in the following manner: Agro-climatic zones are geographical areas that are characterized by specific climate patterns and are used for agricultural planning and development. Some examples are as follows:
Western Himalayan Region:
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
Average annual temperature -20°C to 25°C and alpine regions with heavy snowfall during winter.
Wheat, barley, apples, and saffron are commonly grown in this region due to its cold climate.
Eastern Himalayan Region:
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and parts of Assam.
Cool and temperate climate (Average annual temperature -5°C to 25°C) with high rainfall.
Tea, cardamom, oranges, and ginger thrive in this region due to its favorable climate.
Gangetic Plains:
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and parts of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
Hot and humid climate (Average annual temperature -10°C to 40°C) with a distinct wet and dry season.
Rice, wheat, sugarcane, and jute are major crops cultivated in this region due to its fertile alluvial soil.
Western Coastal Region:
Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Tropical, high humidity with an average annual temperature of 20°C to 35°C and heavy rainfall.
Rubber, coconut, spices (like black pepper), and cashews are cultivated in this region due to its humid conditions.
Western Desert Region: Rajasthan. (i) Extremely arid with low rainfall and high temperatures (Average annual temperature 10°C to 50°C) (ii) Pearl millet (bajra) and drought-resistant crops are grown in this region due to its harsh desert climate. Land capability indicators consider factors like soil type, depth, and drainage.
Soil suitability is a fundamental geographic concept that influences crop choice.
For instance, alluvial soils in the Gangetic Plain are suitable for rice cultivation
The red and laterite soils in regions like Odisha are suitable for crops like millets and oilseeds.
However, cropping patterns in India often do not adhere strictly to the traditional agro-climatic regions. Loss of Biodiversity, Market Price Volatility, Soil Degradation, and Water Stress are some of the problems that have surfaced due to this. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Soil Health Card Scheme, and Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) are steps in the right direction.
(b) Discuss the geopolitical significance of Quad in the Indo-Pacific realm with reference to marine trade in the region.
The Quad, short for the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, is a strategic forum comprising the United States, Japan, India, and Australia. Its geopolitical significance in the Indo-Pacific realm is closely tied to the crucial role it plays in ensuring security and stability in the region, particularly concerning marine trade.
The geopolitical significance of Quad in the Indo-Pacific realm concerning marine trade in the region is as follows:
The Quad’s role in managing SLOC For e.g. The South China Sea is a key SLOC through which a significant portion of the world’s trade flows, making it geopolitically important.
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s theory of sea power emphasizes the strategic significance of controlling key sea routes.
The Quad’s role in ensuring the security of SLOCs aligns with Mahan’s ideas.
The Quad countries are actively involved in infrastructure development initiatives that promote connectivity in the Indo-Pacific.
India’s “SAGAR” (Security and Growth for All in the Region) and Japan’s “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” vision, aim to improve trade infrastructure, further facilitating marine trade.
The Quad members collaborate on various maritime security issues, including combating piracy, promoting search and rescue operations, and disaster relief efforts.
These activities contribute to the safety of maritime trade and enhance regional stability.
The Quad aims to counterbalance China’s power projection in the Indo-Pacific.
The Quad serves as a strategic counterbalance to China’s influence, ensuring that no single power dominates the region, which is crucial for the stability of marine trade routes.
The Quad aims to Promote maritime security
Ensuring the security of maritime trade is crucial for uninterrupted global supply chains and economic stability.
For e.g., Piracy in the Indian Ocean has disrupted shipping routes and led to the establishment of naval task forces to combat piracy.
Nicholas Spykman, emphasizes the importance of controlling key geographic regions.
The Quad’s efforts to enhance maritime trade security align with this concept.
The Quad aims to Promote Geopolitical Alliances
Geopolitical alliances, such as the Quad, are a way for countries to pool their resources and coordinate efforts to address common challenges.
The Quad countries cooperate on a range of issues, including maritime security and disaster relief.
The Quad promotes adherence to international norms and a rules-based order, particularly in the maritime domain.
This emphasis on respecting global rules and agreements, such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), contributes to the predictability and stability of marine trade activities.
The geopolitical significance of the Quad in the Indo-Pacific realm, particularly to marine trade is underscored by its role in maintaining the security of SLOCs, managing maritime disputes, countering power projection, ensuring maritime trade security, and forming strategic alliances.
(c) Evaluate the role of the National Food Security Act, 2003 in providing access of food to the poor in India.
The National Food Security Act (NFSA) of 2013 in India is a landmark legislation that aims to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of the country's population, focusing primarily on the poor and vulnerable sections of society. The Act has been instrumental in addressing the issue of food security in India, ensuring access to adequate quantity and quality of food at affordable prices for the target population. This evaluation will discuss the role of the NFSA in providing access to food for the poor in India through its various provisions and the challenges faced in its implementation.
1. Coverage and entitlements: The NFSA covers about 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population in India, totaling around 800 million people. The Act classifies the beneficiaries into two categories: Priority Households (PHH) and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households. The PHH beneficiaries are entitled to receive 5 kg of food grains per person per month at subsidized prices, while AAY households, which represent the poorest of the poor, receive 35 kg of food grains per household per month.
2. Subsidized prices: The NFSA has fixed the prices of food grains at highly subsidized rates, with rice at ₹3 per kg, wheat at ₹2 per kg, and coarse grains at ₹1 per kg. These prices are significantly lower than the market prices, making it affordable for the poor to access food.
3. Women empowerment: The Act emphasizes the empowerment of women by designating the eldest adult woman in the household as the head of the family for the purpose of issuing ration cards. This provision ensures that women have direct control over the household's food entitlements, thus promoting gender equality and empowering women.
4. Nutritional support to children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers: The NFSA provides for various provisions to ensure the nutritional security of children, pregnant women, and lactating mothers. This includes free meals and nutritional support through schemes such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme for children, as well as maternity benefits for pregnant and lactating women.
5. Grievance redressal and transparency: The Act mandates the establishment of State Food Commissions, District Grievance Redressal Officers, and Vigilance Committees at various levels to ensure transparency and accountability in the implementation of the Act. This mechanism ensures that the grievances of the beneficiaries are addressed effectively and in a time-bound manner.
However, despite the significant strides made by the NFSA, there remain certain challenges in its implementation:
1. Identification of beneficiaries: The identification of eligible beneficiaries remains a critical challenge, with many eligible households being excluded from the list while ineligible households continue to receive benefits.
2. Inefficient Public Distribution System (PDS): The PDS, which is the primary mechanism for the distribution of food grains under the NFSA, suffers from leakages, corruption, and inefficiencies. This often leads to the diversion of food grains meant for the poor to the open market.
3. Nutritional quality: The NFSA focuses primarily on providing access to staple food grains, but there is a need to emphasize the importance of a diverse and nutritious diet for the poor, including pulses, millets, and fortified food grains.
4. Financial sustainability: The high subsidies provided under the NFSA put a significant financial burden on the government, raising concerns about the long-term sustainability of the program.
In conclusion, the National Food Security Act, 2013, has played a crucial role in ensuring access to food for the poor in India. However, to further enhance its effectiveness, there is a need to address the challenges in its implementation by strengthening the PDS, improving the identification of beneficiaries, and focusing on nutritional quality. Additionally, innovative solutions such as Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) of food subsidies can be explored to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the program.
The document UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Geography Paper 2 (Section- B) | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) is a part of the UPSC Course Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes).
FAQs on UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2022: Geography Paper 2 (Section- B) - Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes)
1. What is the significance of the UPSC Mains Geography Paper 2 in the examination process?
Ans. The UPSC Mains Geography Paper 2 is significant as it assesses the candidates' understanding of human geography, economic geography, and regional planning. It helps evaluate their analytical skills and ability to relate geographical concepts to current issues, which is crucial for administrative roles.
2. How should candidates prepare for the Geography Paper 2 of the UPSC Mains?
Ans. Candidates should prepare by thoroughly studying the syllabus, referring to standard textbooks, and practicing previous year question papers. Additionally, they should stay updated with current affairs related to geography and engage in answer writing practice to enhance presentation skills.
3. What are the key topics covered in Geography Paper 2 of the UPSC Mains?
Ans. Key topics in Geography Paper 2 include human geography, economic geography, urbanization, regional planning, and environmental geography. Candidates should also focus on contemporary issues such as sustainable development and globalization.
4. How is the Geography Paper 2 evaluated in the UPSC Mains exam?
Ans. The Geography Paper 2 is evaluated based on the clarity of ideas, coherence in arguments, and the ability to present geographical data effectively. Evaluators look for analytical depth, critical thinking, and the relevance of examples used in answers.
5. What are some common mistakes to avoid while answering Geography Paper 2 questions in the UPSC Mains?
Ans. Common mistakes include not adhering to the word limit, writing irrelevant information, and failing to structure answers coherently. Candidates should also avoid excessive use of jargon without explanation and ensure they focus on the question asked.
where A dispute in the Terai region, both countries have claimed areas.
where A dispute in the Terai region, both countries have claimed areas.
A border town where disputes have arisen over the no-man’s-land called “Gunji.”
