UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: History Paper 2 (Section- A) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words each : (10x5=50)

The introduction of Western education in India took place during the British colonial period and brought about significant changes in the social, economic, and political spheres of the country. It played a crucial role in shaping India's modern identity, and its effects can be seen even today. The following points highlight the transformation that occurred in India as a result of the introduction of Western education.

1. Social impact: Western education contributed significantly to the social transformation of India. It helped in breaking down the barriers of caste, creed, and religion, and promoted the ideas of social equality, liberty, and fraternity. One of the most significant outcomes of Western education was the emergence of a new educated middle class that became a catalyst for social reforms, the growth of nationalism, and the freedom struggle. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotiba Phule are some examples of social reformers who were influenced by Western education and actively campaigned against social evils like Sati, child marriage, and untouchability.

2. Economic impact: Western education led to the emergence of new professions in India, such as lawyers, teachers, doctors, and engineers. This development facilitated the growth of a modern economy in the country, with a focus on industries, trade, and commerce. Western education also introduced modern systems of administration, which improved the functioning of various sectors of the economy.

3. Political impact: Western education played a significant role in the growth of nationalism and the freedom struggle in India. The educated middle class, influenced by the Western concepts of democracy, freedom, and equality, began voicing their demands for greater political representation and self-rule. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Bipin Chandra Pal were educated in Western institutions and were instrumental in mobilizing the masses for the cause of Indian independence.

4. Cultural impact: Western education led to a renaissance in Indian literature, art, and science. Indian scholars and writers were exposed to Western literary works, leading to the creation of new literary forms, styles, and themes. Similarly, Western education encouraged scientific temper and rational thinking, which contributed to the development of modern scientific research in India. Indian artists also began to incorporate Western techniques and styles in their works, leading to a fusion of Indian and Western art forms.

In conclusion, the introduction of Western education in India brought about significant changes in the social, economic, political, and cultural spheres of the country. It played a vital role in shaping India's modern identity and laid the foundation for the country's progress towards becoming a democratic, secular, and economically prosperous nation.

(b) Tipu Sultan had little success in setting forth a course of change significantly different from the general experience of 18th century crisis of Indian politics and society where public life tended over and over to become a system of plundering.        (10 Marks)

Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore who was known for his bravery and attempts to modernize his kingdom. Despite his efforts, he had little success in bringing about a significant change in the crisis-ridden Indian politics and society of the 18th century.

(i) One of the reasons for his limited success was the constant state of warfare he found himself in. He was involved in four Anglo-Mysore wars against the British East India Company, which not only consumed his resources and energy but also limited his ability to bring about internal reforms. Moreover, the British had established their dominance over India by the end of the 18th century, which made it difficult for any regional power to challenge their authority.

(ii) Another reason for Tipu Sultan's limited success in bringing change was his religious policy, which was seen as intolerant by the majority Hindu community. His policy of forced conversion and imposition of taxes on non-Muslims led to a decline in the socio-economic condition of the people in his kingdom.

(iii) Tipu Sultan's administration was also characterized by the suppression of dissent and a lack of consensus among various sections of society. His autocratic style of governance and reliance on a close circle of advisors alienated the local chieftains and nobility, further limiting his ability to bring about substantial reforms.

(iv) Lastly, the 18th century was a period of political instability and fragmentation in India. Regional powers were constantly trying to assert their dominance, leading to a culture of plundering and exploitation. Tipu Sultan, too, was a part of this system and engaged in plundering neighboring kingdoms to fund his campaigns against the British.

In conclusion, although Tipu Sultan was a visionary ruler who tried to modernize his kingdom and resist British imperialism, he could not bring about a significant change in the crisis-ridden Indian society and politics of the 18th century. His efforts were constrained by the constant state of warfare, religious intolerance, autocratic governance, and the general culture of plundering that characterized the period.

(c) The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was designed for better control of the vernacular press and to empower the government with more effective means of punishing and repressing seditious writings.         (10 Marks)

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was enacted by the British colonial government in India to censor and control the vernacular press, which played a crucial role in promoting nationalist ideas and sentiments among the Indian masses. This Act was a response to the growing power and influence of the Indian press in spreading anti-colonial and nationalist thoughts, which the British government viewed as a threat to their rule in India.

(i) The Act empowered the government to confiscate printing presses and prohibit the publication of any material that it deemed seditious or harmful to the colonial administration. It also provided for the arrest and imprisonment of editors, publishers, and writers of such materials. The government officials were given wide-ranging powers to search and seize any document that they believed to be offensive or incendiary in nature.

(ii) The Vernacular Press Act was directed mainly against Indian language newspapers, which were instrumental in mobilizing public opinion against the oppressive policies of the British government. It was a means to curtail the freedom of speech and expression, and to suppress any dissenting voices that challenged the colonial rule.
For example, Amrita Bazar Patrika, a leading Bengali newspaper, was targeted under this Act for its strong anti-colonial stand and criticism of the British administration. To circumvent the provisions of the Act, the newspaper converted itself into an English daily, thereby continuing its fight against colonial oppression.

(iii) Another example is the case of Kesari, a Marathi newspaper founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The newspaper was known for its uncompromising stand against the British government and for promoting the cause of Indian nationalism. Tilak was charged with sedition under the provisions of the Vernacular Press Act and was imprisoned for six years.

(iv) The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was widely resented and criticized by Indian nationalists, who saw it as a blatant violation of their fundamental rights and an attempt to stifle their struggle for freedom. The Act was eventually repealed in 1882 by the then Viceroy, Lord Ripon, in response to widespread protests and demands from the Indian public.

In conclusion, the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a repressive measure aimed at controlling the vernacular press in India and suppressing any form of dissent against the British colonial rule. It curtailed the freedom of speech and expression, and targeted newspapers that were critical of the government's policies. The Act not only exposed the autocratic nature of British rule in India but also strengthened the resolve of the Indian nationalists to fight for their rights and freedom.

(d) The rise of the Communist Movement in India in the 1920s lent a militant and revolutionary content to the Trade Union Movement.        (10 Marks)

The rise of the communist movement in India in the 1920s played a crucial role in shaping the nature and orientation of the trade union movement in the country. The advent of communism provided an ideological basis for militant and revolutionary trade unionism, which aimed at not only securing better working conditions for the laborers but also challenging the capitalist system as a whole.

(i) The first major example of the communist influence on the trade union movement in India is the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920. The founding members of the AITUC were heavily inspired by the Bolshevik revolution in Russia and sought to replicate its success in India. This was evidenced in their demands for the nationalization of key industries, the abolition of child labor, and the establishment of a living wage for workers.

(ii) In the 1920s, the AITUC became increasingly radical under the leadership of communists like M.N. Roy and S.A. Dange. The organization began to explicitly advocate for a socialist transformation of the Indian economy and the overthrow of the capitalist system. This led to several instances of militant labor strikes and protests across the country, such as the Bombay textile workers' strike in 1928 and the Calcutta tramway workers' strike in 1929.

(iii) The rise of the communist movement also led to the formation of several other militant trade unions in India, such as the Bengal Provincial Trade Union Congress (BPTUC) and the All India Railwaymen's Federation (AIRF). These organizations played a key role in mobilizing the working class against the exploitative practices of the British colonial government and Indian capitalists.

(iv) The impact of the communist movement on the trade union movement in India was not limited to its radicalization but also extended to its organizational structure and functioning. The communists, with their emphasis on discipline and collective action, were able to build strong and united trade unions, capable of challenging the entrenched interests of the capitalist class.

(v) However, the militant and revolutionary nature of the communist-inspired trade union movement also invited strong backlash from the colonial government and the Indian capitalist class. The British authorities often resorted to repressive measures, such as arrests and detentions of trade union leaders, to curb the rising tide of labor militancy.

In conclusion, the rise of the communist movement in the 1920s had a profound impact on the trade union movement in India. It infused the movement with a militant and revolutionary spirit, which was instrumental in securing several key concessions for the working class. At the same time, it also exposed the movement to the wrath of the colonial government and the Indian capitalist class, who saw it as a threat to their interests. Despite these challenges, the communist influence on the trade union movement left an indelible mark on the history of labor struggles in India.

(e) In the first decade of the 20th century, the atmosphere was ripe for the emergence of revolutionary groups to fill up the vacant space in the political map of the country.        (10 Marks)

During the first decade of the 20th century, India was undergoing a significant transformation. The British colonial rule had led to widespread discontent and anger among the Indian masses. The socio-economic condition of the majority of the population was deteriorating, and there was a growing demand for political representation and self-rule. The Indian National Congress, which was initially formed as a moderate and reformist organization, was struggling to gain momentum in its fight for independence. This situation provided a conducive environment for the rise of revolutionary groups in India.

(i) One of the major factors contributing to the emergence of revolutionary groups was the increasing awareness and exposure to international revolutionary movements. The Indian youth was highly influenced by the ideologies of socialism and nationalism, which were gaining prominence in Europe, Russia, and Japan. They were inspired by the examples of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Russian Nihilists, and the Japanese struggle for independence.

(ii) Furthermore, the British government's repressive policies and the failure of the moderate leaders of the Indian National Congress to achieve significant concessions from the British further disillusioned the Indian youth. They began to question the effectiveness of the methods of constitutional agitation and political negotiation adopted by the Congress. This led to the rise of extremist leaders within the Congress, like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, who advocated for more radical and aggressive means to attain self-rule.

(iii) The partition of Bengal in 1905 proved to be a turning point in Indian history. It not only led to a massive upsurge in nationalist sentiments but also provided an impetus for the growth of revolutionary groups. The Swadeshi and Boycott movements, which emerged in response to the partition, further fueled the growth of revolutionary activities. In this period, several prominent revolutionary organizations, like the Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar group in Bengal, the Abhinav Bharat in Maharashtra, and the Ghadar Party in North America, came into existence.

(iv) These groups aimed to overthrow the British rule through armed struggle and acts of violence. They were involved in various activities such as assassinations of British officials, dacoities, bombings, and conspiracies against the British government. Some of the notable incidents include the Alipore Bomb case (1908), the assassination of Lt. Col. William Curzon Wyllie by Madan Lal Dhingra (1909), and the First Lahore Conspiracy Case (1915). The revolutionary activities during this period also played a crucial role in shaping the Indian freedom struggle, as it forced the moderate leaders to adopt a more assertive stance towards the British government.

In conclusion, the first decade of the 20th century witnessed the emergence of revolutionary groups in India due to the prevailing socio-political conditions, influence of international revolutionary movements, and the failure of moderate leaders in achieving concessions from the British government. These revolutionary groups played a significant role in intensifying the nationalist sentiments and pushing the Indian freedom struggle towards a more radical and aggressive path.

Q.2. Answer the following:

The British dominion in India had far-reaching effects on the Indian economy, particularly in the field of hand-spun and hand-woven yarn and cloth, which had been the backbone of India's handicrafts for centuries. Many nationalists and Marxist critiques have argued that the British deliberately shattered the traditional and world-famous handicrafts of India to establish their hegemony and further their economic interests. Here are some key points to support this argument:

1. Deindustrialization: The British introduced machine-made textiles from England, which were cheaper and more accessible, resulting in the decline of demand for Indian hand-spun and hand-woven textiles. This eventually led to the unemployment of Indian weavers and the collapse of the Indian textile industry. For example, the famous Muslin cloth of Dhaka, which was once known for its fine quality and high demand, lost its prominence during the colonial period.

2. Exploitative trade policies: The East India Company and later the British government imposed exploitative trade policies on India, forcing Indian weavers and artisans to sell their products at low prices to the British, who then exported these goods at higher prices, reaping massive profits. The Indian artisans were not allowed to trade directly with European markets, which further hampered their growth and prosperity.

3. Destruction of traditional markets: The British destroyed the traditional Indian markets and distribution channels, which were essential for the sustenance of the handicraft industry. For instance, the annexation of the Kingdom of Awadh in 1856 led to the impoverishment of the local nobility, who were the primary patrons of the weavers and artisans in the region. This severely impacted the handicraft industry in Awadh.

4. Imposition of taxes and duties: The British imposed high taxes and duties on Indian handicrafts, making them less competitive in the international market. For example, the British levied a heavy export duty on raw cotton, which adversely affected Indian cotton production and made it difficult for the Indian textile industry to compete with cheaper British textiles.

5. Neglect of indigenous industries: The British rulers focused on the development of modern industries, such as railways, telegraphs, and steamships, to serve their colonial interests. They neglected the indigenous industries, including the handicraft sector, which was crucial for the livelihood of millions of skilled artisans and weavers.

6. Loss of patronage and cultural decline: The British policies led to the impoverishment of the Indian ruling class and the decline of the princely states, which were the traditional patrons of Indian handicrafts. The loss of patronage and the decline of the cultural milieu in which the artisans and weavers thrived resulted in the gradual disappearance of many exquisite art forms and crafts.

In conclusion, the impact of British dominion on the traditional handicrafts of India was indeed devastating. The exploitative trade policies, deindustrialization, and neglect of indigenous industries led to the decline of the once flourishing hand-spun and hand-woven yarn and cloth sector in India. This, coupled with the loss of patronage and cultural decline, further weakened the handicraft industry, which had been the pride of India for many centuries.

(b) What were the various ways in which nationalism manifested itself in India during colonial rule?        (10 Marks)

Nationalism in India during colonial rule manifested itself in various ways, including political, social, cultural, and economic aspects. The rise of Indian nationalism was a result of multiple factors such as colonial exploitation, the impact of western education and ideas, and the desire to protect and promote Indian identity.

1. Political Nationalism: The Indian National Congress (INC), established in 1885, was the first organized expression of Indian nationalism. It provided a platform for political dialogue and mobilized public opinion against colonial rule. The INC initially demanded greater representation in legislative councils and administrative reforms. However, with the rise of extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, the demand for 'Swaraj' or self-rule became more prominent.

2. Revolutionary Nationalism: The early 20th century saw the rise of revolutionary groups like the Anushilan Samiti and the Jugantar, which sought to overthrow British rule through armed struggle. Key figures like Khudiram Bose, Bagha Jatin, and Chandrashekhar Azad engaged in revolutionary activities, including assassinations and bombings, to challenge the colonial regime.

3. Social and Religious Reform Movements: Nationalism in India was also shaped by various social and religious reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission. These movements sought to reform Indian society by removing social evils like caste discrimination and gender inequality, and by promoting a sense of pride in Indian culture and tradition. Key leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and Dayananda Saraswati played significant roles in these movements.

4. Cultural Nationalism: Indian nationalism found expression in the revival and promotion of Indian art, literature, music, and architecture. Efforts were made to rediscover India's ancient heritage and to promote indigenous art forms. The Bengal School of Art, led by Abanindranath Tagore, sought to develop an Indian style of painting that was distinct from the European influence. Similarly, the promotion of Indian literature and languages, such as the works of Rabindranath Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, also contributed to the growth of nationalism.

5. Economic Nationalism: Indian nationalists sought to challenge the economic exploitation by the British, such as the drain of wealth, discriminatory tariffs, and the neglect of indigenous industries. The Swadeshi Movement, which began in 1905 as a response to the partition of Bengal, called for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian products. This movement contributed to the growth of Indian industries and generated a sense of economic self-reliance.

6. Mass Mobilization: The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934), led by Mahatma Gandhi, sought to challenge British rule through non-violent means. These movements involved people from various sections of society, including peasants, workers, students, and women, and played a crucial role in spreading the ideas of nationalism across the country.

In conclusion, Indian nationalism during colonial rule manifested itself in various ways, encompassing political, social, cultural, and economic aspects. The struggle against British rule united Indians from different regions, religions, and social backgrounds, ultimately leading to the country's independence in 1947.

(c) The East India Company had thought that they had found an ideal puppet in Mir Kasim. Mir Kasim, however, belied the expectation of the company. Examine critically.        (10 Marks)

Mir Kasim, also known as Mir Qasim, was the Nawab of Bengal from 1760 to 1763. The East India Company, which had gained significant control over Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, believed that Mir Kasim would be an ideal puppet ruler who would help the British consolidate their power in the region. However, Mir Kasim proved to be a strong-willed and independent ruler, who sought to strengthen his own position and resist the growing influence of the British.

The East India Company had initially supported Mir Kasim as they expected him to be compliant and amenable to their demands. However, Mir Kasim was not content with being a mere puppet ruler and soon took measures to assert his authority and challenge the Company's dominance. Some of the key actions taken by Mir Kasim that belied the Company's expectations include:

1. Administrative Reforms: Mir Kasim took several steps to strengthen his administration and make it more efficient. He introduced reforms to improve the revenue collection system, strengthen the military, and streamline the judicial system. These reforms helped to consolidate his position and increase his control over the administration.

2. Challenging the Company's Trade Monopoly: Mir Kasim sought to reduce the Company's control over trade in Bengal by abolishing the customs duties and other taxes levied on traders. This move allowed local merchants to compete with the British on equal terms and reduced the Company's profits from trade, thus challenging their economic dominance in the region.

3. Military Modernization: Mir Kasim took steps to modernize and strengthen his military forces by hiring European mercenaries, purchasing modern weapons and artillery, and introducing European-style training and tactics. His strengthened military allowed him to challenge the British forces and resist their expansion in Bengal.

4. Diplomatic Maneuvers: Mir Kasim sought to forge alliances with other Indian powers, such as the Marathas, the Nawab of Awadh, and the Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, to create a united front against the British. This move directly challenged the Company's attempts to isolate and subdue Bengal.
However, despite Mir Kasim's efforts to resist the British, his actions ultimately led to his downfall. The East India Company, which had initially supported him, soon turned against him, and a series of conflicts, known as the Anglo-Mysore Wars, broke out between the forces of Mir Kasim and the British. Mir Kasim was eventually defeated and forced to flee, and the British reasserted their control over Bengal.

In conclusion, Mir Kasim proved to be a strong-willed and independent ruler who was not content with being a puppet of the East India Company. He took various measures to assert his authority, modernize his military, and challenge the Company's economic and political dominance in Bengal. Although his actions ultimately led to his downfall, they demonstrated that he was not the compliant and subservient ruler the Company had hoped for.

Q.3. Answer the following:

English utilitarian thinking had a significant impact on India during the British era, shaping various aspects of Indian society, politics, and administration. Utilitarianism, a philosophical movement led by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, emphasized the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number," which meant that political and social institutions should aim to maximize the overall well-being of society.

1. Administrative Reforms: English utilitarian thinking influenced the British administration in India, leading to several reforms. For instance, the Indian Civil Service (ICS) was introduced, replacing the patronage-based system of the East India Company. The ICS aimed to create a merit-based bureaucracy that would serve the best interests of society. In addition, utilitarian principles inspired the British to establish a uniform legal system, replacing the existing patchwork of customary and religious laws. The codification of laws, such as the Indian Penal Code (1860), the Code of Criminal Procedure (1861), and the Indian Evidence Act (1872), aimed to provide equal justice to all, regardless of their religion, caste, or social status.

2. Education Reforms: British utilitarians believed that education was the key to social progress and human development. They advocated for a system of secular, modern, and scientific education that would replace the traditional Indian system of education focused on religious scriptures and classical languages. Thomas Babington Macaulay, a prominent utilitarian, played a crucial role in shaping India's education policy. His 'Minute on Indian Education' (1835) argued for the introduction of the English language and western-style education in India. Consequently, many schools, colleges, and universities were established during the British era, providing English-medium education and promoting western sciences, literature, and philosophy.

3. Social Reforms: Utilitarian thinkers influenced various social reforms during the British era, targeting practices they deemed irrational, immoral, or harmful to the general welfare. For example, the abolition of Sati (a practice where widows immolated themselves on their husband's funeral pyre) in 1829 was influenced by utilitarian principles. Similarly, utilitarians supported efforts to eradicate other social evils such as child marriage, female infanticide, and caste discrimination. However, these reforms were often met with resistance from conservative sections of Indian society, who saw them as an imposition of western values.

4. Economic Policies: British economic policies in India were also influenced by utilitarian thinking. The British aimed to modernize and integrate the Indian economy with the global market to maximize overall welfare. They introduced modern industries, infrastructure projects (such as railways, telegraphs, and irrigation systems), and commercial agriculture (cash crops like cotton, indigo, and tea). However, these policies often led to the exploitation of Indian resources and labor, benefiting the British more than the Indian population.

In conclusion, English utilitarian thinking had a profound impact on India during the British era, shaping various aspects of Indian society, politics, and administration. While some of these reforms were aimed at promoting the overall welfare of the Indian population, they often came at the expense of indigenous culture and traditions, leading to resistance and long-lasting socio-cultural tensions.

(b) The same Gandhiji who withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement on the issue of violence at Chauri-Chaura, refused to condemn people's violence during the Quit India Movement. Do you think that he was losing his faith in the efficacy of non-violence and was willing to deviate from this path? Elucidate.        (10 Marks)

It appears unlikely that Mahatma Gandhi was losing his faith in the efficacy of non-violence during the Quit India Movement. Instead, it could be argued that his stance on violence had evolved, and the changing political context of the 1940s played a significant role in shaping his approach. While he remained committed to the principle of non-violence, the circumstances of the Quit India Movement forced him to acknowledge the role of violence in the struggle for independence.

1. Evolution in Gandhi’s stance on violence: Gandhi's withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, following the violence at Chauri-Chaura, demonstrated his strict adherence to non-violence at that time. However, Gandhi's views on violence and non-violence were not static. They evolved through his experiences in the Indian independence movement and his interactions with various leaders and ideologies. By the time of the Quit India Movement, Gandhi's stance on violence had become more nuanced.

2. Changing political context: The 1940s saw a rapidly changing political scenario. World War II was raging, and the British Empire was under immense pressure. The Indian National Congress realized that this was a crucial time to press for India's independence. The Quit India Movement, launched in 1942, aimed to force the British to leave India immediately. In this context, it seemed pragmatic for Gandhi to not condemn the use of violence outright, as doing so could weaken the movement and dilute its impact.

3. Acknowledgment of the role of violence: During the Quit India Movement, Gandhi acknowledged that violence could have a role in the struggle for independence. He said, "I do not want Japan to win. But I do not want the Allies to win either, so long as they want to retain their empires." He was aware that the movement could turn violent and said, "If the violence of the people is the result of my teaching, I must own it and suffer the consequences." However, he maintained his commitment to non-violence and urged people to follow the path of non-violent resistance.

4. The pragmatic approach to the movement: Gandhi understood that the exigencies of the Quit India Movement required a more flexible approach to violence. While he did not advocate or endorse violence, he recognized that condemning it could weaken the movement's momentum. Instead, he focused on building a strong, united front against the British and promoting the ultimate goal of independence.

In conclusion, it does not seem accurate to suggest that Gandhi was losing faith in the efficacy of non-violence during the Quit India Movement. Rather, his approach to violence had evolved, becoming more pragmatic and context-specific. His refusal to condemn violence during the Quit India Movement demonstrates a recognition of the complex political situation and an acknowledgment of the role violence could play in the struggle for independence. Nonetheless, Gandhi continued to champion non-violence as a powerful tool in the fight for freedom.

(c) While individually the Marathas were clever and brave, they lacked the corporate spirit so essential for national independence. Discuss with reasons.        (10 Marks)

The Marathas were a warrior clan with a rich history of military prowess and administrative skills, emerging as a major political power in the Indian subcontinent from the 17th century onwards. Despite their individual talents and bravery, they failed to achieve complete national independence due to their lack of corporate spirit. This lack of unity and collective identity can be attributed to several reasons, which ultimately hindered their progress as a unified political entity.

1. Fragmented leadership: The Maratha polity was characterized by a decentralized power structure. The Maratha Empire was divided into several semi-autonomous provinces ruled by powerful chieftains or Sardars. These Sardars often acted independently and pursued their own interests, leading to frequent internal conflicts and lack of cohesion in the face of external threats.

2. Absence of a strong central authority: Though the Maratha kings held nominal authority over the entire empire, their actual power was limited due to the influence of powerful Sardars and ministers. The Peshwa, who was originally the Prime Minister, gradually emerged as the de facto ruler of the Maratha Empire. However, the Peshwas themselves lacked the ability to command absolute loyalty and obedience from their subordinates, leading to further disunity.

3. Caste divisions: The Maratha society was plagued by rigid caste divisions, which hampered the development of a unified national identity. The Brahmins, who formed the priestly class, enjoyed significant influence over the politics of the empire, often leading to resentment and tensions among the lower castes, including the Maratha warriors.

4. Lack of a common vision: The Marathas lacked a clear and unified vision for their empire, which prevented them from addressing the challenges and threats they faced effectively. While some leaders like Shivaji advocated for a strong, centralized state, others like the Peshwas were more interested in expanding their own power and influence.

5. Internal rivalries and conflicts: The Maratha Empire was plagued by frequent internal conflicts and power struggles among various factions. These disputes often resulted in the weakening of the empire, making it increasingly vulnerable to attacks from external enemies like the Mughals, the British, and the Afghans.

6. Neglect of strategic alliances: The Marathas failed to forge strategic alliances with other regional powers, which could have helped them in their struggle for independence. Their inability to maintain friendly relations with other Indian states, such as the Sikhs, Rajputs, and Jats, prevented them from forming a united front against the foreign powers.

In conclusion, the Marathas failed to achieve national independence due to their lack of corporate spirit, which can be attributed to fragmented leadership, absence of a strong central authority, caste divisions, lack of a common vision, internal rivalries and conflicts, and neglect of strategic alliances. Despite their individual bravery and skill, these factors prevented them from realizing their full potential as a unified political entity, ultimately leading to the decline of the Maratha Empire.

Q.4. Answer the following:

The major constitutional developments in India after 1858 can be broadly categorized into three phases: (1) the period of direct British rule (1858-1909), (2) the period of constitutional reforms (1909-1947), and (3) the period of independent India (1947-present). These developments have significantly impacted Indian society and polity in various ways.

1. The period of direct British rule (1858-1909)

This period saw the establishment of a centralized British administration in India, following the Government of India Act, 1858, which transferred the administration from the East India Company to the British Crown. The Indian Councils Act, 1861, and the Indian Councils Act, 1892, further expanded the legislative councils and introduced the principle of indirect election, respectively.

Impact on society and polity:
(i) Centralization of administration under the British Crown led to better coordination and control over Indian territories.
(ii) Indians were included in the legislative councils, albeit indirectly, which provided them with a platform to voice their grievances and demand reforms.
(iii) Emergence of new social classes, such as the Indian intelligentsia, who would later play a crucial role in the Indian independence movement.
(iv) Rise of Indian nationalism, which culminated in the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885.

2. The period of constitutional reforms (1909-1947)

During this period, a series of reforms were introduced to provide more representation to Indians in the administration and to address their grievances. Some of the major developments include the Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909), the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Government of India Act, 1919), and the Government of India Act, 1935.

Impact on society and polity:

(i) The Morley-Minto Reforms introduced separate electorates for Muslims, which had a long-term impact on the communalization of Indian politics.
(ii) The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms provided for the establishment of dyarchy (dual government) in the provinces, which gave Indians more control over their affairs and paved the way for responsible government.
(iii) The Government of India Act, 1935, laid the foundation for a federal structure in India and provided for the establishment of provincial autonomy, which further decentralized the administration and empowered the provinces.
(iv) These reforms also led to the rise of various political parties and leaders, such as the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, and the rise of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who played a significant role in shaping the future of India.

3. The period of independent India (1947-present)

The most significant constitutional development in this period was the framing and adoption of the Constitution of India, which came into effect on January 26, 1950. It established India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic and provided for a parliamentary system of government, with a clear separation of powers among the executive, legislature, and judiciary.

Impact on society and polity:

(i) The Constitution of India has provided for various fundamental rights, directive principles of state policy, and a framework for the functioning of the government, which has shaped the socio-political landscape of India.
(ii) The establishment of a democratic system of government has ensured regular elections, smooth transitions of power, and political stability.
(iii) The secular nature of the Constitution has enabled the co-existence of various religions, languages, and cultures within the country.
(iv) Various constitutional amendments, such as the 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992), have further decentralized the administration, empowered local self-governments, and ensured greater representation of marginalized sections of society.

In conclusion, the major constitutional developments in India since 1858 have played a crucial role in shaping the socio-political landscape of the country. From the initial period of direct British rule to the current democratic setup, these developments have influenced the functioning of the government, the rights and freedoms of the citizens, and the overall growth and development of the country.

(b) Discuss the changing nature of Dalit assertion in India in the twentieth century.        (10 Marks)

The Dalit assertion in India during the twentieth century can be understood as a process of political, social, and cultural transformation that sought to challenge the traditional hierarchical structure of the caste system and empower the marginalized Dalit communities. The changing nature of Dalit assertion in India can be analyzed under various phases, marked by the emergence of distinct leaders, movements, and political ideologies.

1. Early twentieth century: The early twentieth century saw the beginning of Dalit assertion with the emergence of prominent leaders like B.R. Ambedkar and E.V. Ramasamy, who raised their voice against caste-based discrimination and untouchability. Ambedkar, as the principal architect of the Indian Constitution, played a crucial role in incorporating provisions for the protection and upliftment of Dalits. He also founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in 1924, which aimed to promote education, socio-economic betterment, and political rights for Dalits.

2. The rise of the Self-Respect Movement: In the 1920s, the Self-Respect Movement led by E.V. Ramasamy, also known as Periyar, gained prominence in the Madras Presidency (present-day Tamil Nadu). This movement aimed to dismantle the Brahmin hegemony and end caste-based discrimination. It sought to instill self-respect, dignity, and rational thinking among the lower castes and encouraged inter-caste marriages.

3. The emergence of the Depressed Classes: In the 1930s, the British administration recognized the need to provide political representation to the marginalized sections of society. The Communal Award of 1932 granted separate electorates to the Depressed Classes (present-day Dalits). However, this provision was later replaced with the Poona Pact, which ensured reserved seats for the Depressed Classes within the general electorate.

4. Post-independence period: After India gained independence in 1947, the Constitution abolished untouchability and provided for affirmative action in the form of reservations in educational institutions, government jobs, and legislatures for the Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST). The implementation of these measures led to an increase in the political participation and representation of Dalits.

5. The rise of Dalit political parties: In the 1980s and 1990s, several Dalit-centric political parties emerged, such as the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Uttar Pradesh, led by Kanshi Ram and Mayawati. These parties focused on mobilizing the Dalit masses and addressing their socio-economic and political concerns. The BSP, in particular, achieved significant electoral success and formed the government in Uttar Pradesh multiple times.

6. The emergence of Dalit literature and arts: The twentieth century also witnessed the flourishing of Dalit literature, which aimed to articulate the experiences of oppression, exclusion, and resistance faced by the Dalit communities. Writers like Omprakash Valmiki, Kancha Ilaiah, and Bama contributed significantly to the development of Dalit literature. Dalit Panther, a radical political organization founded in Maharashtra in 1972, also played a crucial role in promoting Dalit literature and arts.

7. The rise of Dalit activism and movements: In recent decades, several Dalit movements have emerged, which have sought to challenge caste-based discrimination, violence, and exclusion. Movements like the Dalit Shoshit Mukti Manch (DSMM), the Dalit Mahila Sangharsh Samiti (DMSS), and the Rohith Vemula movement have highlighted issues of caste-based atrocities, discrimination in educational institutions, and gender-based violence.

In conclusion, the changing nature of Dalit assertion in India during the twentieth century reflects a continuous struggle for dignity, equality, and social justice. Despite the progress made in terms of political representation, socio-economic upliftment, and cultural expression, the struggle to eradicate caste-based discrimination and violence continues.

(c) How were the Princely States integrated in the Indian Union after the partition? What role did Sardar Patel play in it?        (10 Marks)

The integration of the Princely States into the Indian Union after the partition was a complex and challenging process. The British had given the Princely States the option to join either India or Pakistan, or remain independent. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the then Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Home Affairs, played a pivotal role in the integration of these states. His diplomacy, tact, and determination, along with the support of Lord Mountbatten and V.P. Menon, led to the successful amalgamation of the Princely States into the Indian Union.

Sardar Patel's approach towards the integration of the Princely States can be summarized as follows:

1. Political Dialogue and Diplomacy: Initially, Patel and his team engaged in political dialogues and diplomacy with the rulers of the Princely States. They were persuaded to accede to the Indian Union by signing the Instrument of Accession, which dealt with three subjects - defense, external affairs, and communications. In return, the rulers were assured that their internal autonomy and privileges would be protected.

2. Use of Force and Military Action: In cases where diplomacy failed, Patel resorted to military action. For instance, in Junagadh, the Nawab had acceded to Pakistan despite the state's Hindu majority and its geographical location within India. Patel sent Indian troops to the state, and a plebiscite was held, which resulted in Junagadh's integration into India.

3. Standstill Agreements: In some cases, standstill agreements were signed with the Princely States to maintain the existing administrative and political arrangements until a final decision was made about their integration. This approach was followed with states like Hyderabad and Bhopal.

4. Merger Agreements: To simplify the administration and ensure better governance, many smaller Princely States were merged to form larger administrative units called Unions. For example, the Rajputana Union, the Madhya Bharat Union, and the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) were created by merging several smaller states.

Some specific examples of the integration of Princely States:

1. Hyderabad: The Nizam of Hyderabad wanted to remain independent, and Patel initially signed a standstill agreement with him. However, due to the Nizam's oppressive rule and the rise of the Razakar movement, Patel ordered a military operation called Operation Polo in September 1948. This resulted in the annexation of Hyderabad into the Indian Union.

2. Travancore: The Diwan of Travancore, Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, initially declared the state's intention to remain independent. However, after widespread protests and the assassination attempt on him, the Diwan resigned, and the Maharaja of Travancore signed the Instrument of Accession to join the Indian Union.

3. Jammu and Kashmir: Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir wanted to remain independent but was forced to accede to India when Pakistan-backed tribal raiders invaded the state in October 1947. Patel played a crucial role in sending Indian troops to the state to repel the invaders.

4. Manipur: The Maharaja of Manipur signed the Instrument of Accession in 1947, and the state was initially granted internal autonomy. However, in 1949, following a political crisis in the state, the Maharaja signed a Merger Agreement, and Manipur became a part of India.

In conclusion, the integration of the Princely States into the Indian Union was a monumental task that required a combination of diplomatic efforts, tactful negotiations, and military interventions. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel's determined efforts and astute leadership played a crucial role in the successful and relatively peaceful integration of these states into the newly independent India.