UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2020: History Paper 1 (Section- B) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : (5x10=50)

The Tughlaq dynasty, spanning from 1320 to 1413 CE, was the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate in India. The Muslim nobility of this period played a significant role in shaping the socio-political and economic landscape of the empire. However, a critical evaluation of the Muslim nobility during the Tughlaq dynasty reveals a complex and multifaceted picture.

(i) On the one hand, the Muslim nobles were instrumental in the expansion and consolidation of the Tughlaq empire. They were responsible for administering the provinces and maintaining law and order. The nobles were also patrons of arts, architecture, and literature, which led to the development of a rich cultural heritage during this period. Examples of this patronage include the construction of the Tughlaqabad Fort, the Adilabad Fort, and the establishment of the city of Firozabad by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

(ii) Moreover, the Muslim nobility was also responsible for promoting education and religious institutions. They established madrasas, or Islamic schools, and built mosques to propagate Islam. These institutions played a crucial role in the dissemination of Islamic knowledge, as well as fostering cultural and intellectual exchange between the Indian subcontinent and the broader Islamic world.

(iii) However, the Muslim nobility during the Tughlaq dynasty also had its shortcomings. The nobles often indulged in excessive luxuries and extravagance, which strained the state's finances. This led to increased taxation on the peasantry, resulting in widespread discontent and unrest. The nobility's obsession with maintaining their status and privileges also led to infighting and intrigues, which weakened the central authority and contributed to the decline of the Tughlaq dynasty.

(iv) Moreover, the Muslim nobility's policies towards the non-Muslim population were often oppressive and discriminatory. This alienated the majority Hindu population and further contributed to the instability of the empire. For instance, Firoz Shah Tughlaq's imposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims was a highly unpopular move that led to resentment among the Hindu population.

In conclusion, the Muslim nobility during the Tughlaq dynasty played a significant role in shaping the empire's socio-political and economic landscape. While they contributed to the expansion and cultural development of the empire, their shortcomings and oppressive policies towards the non-Muslim population eventually led to the decline and fragmentation of the Tughlaq dynasty.

(b) Describe in detail about the foreign travellers' accounts which gave information of Vijayanagar kingdom.       (10 Marks)

The Vijayanagar Kingdom, spanning from the 14th to the 17th century in South India, has been widely documented by various foreign travelers who visited the empire during its peak. These accounts provide valuable information on the socio-economic, political, and cultural aspects of Vijayanagar, giving a comprehensive picture of its splendor.

(i) One of the most prominent accounts is that of the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta, who visited the kingdom in the 14th century during the reign of Harihar and Bukka, the founders of the empire. Ibn Battuta recorded the excellent administration, extensive trade, and religious tolerance prevalent in the kingdom.

(ii) In the 15th century, the Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak visited the court of Devaraya II. He was impressed by the grandeur of the capital, Hampi, with its magnificent temples, palaces, and bustling markets. Razzak also highlighted the strong central administration and the efficient tax collection system.

(iii) The Italian traveler Niccolo Conti visited the kingdom during the reign of Devaraya II and provided information about the socio-economic conditions, including the prosperous trade in textiles, spices, and precious stones. He also mentioned the use of the Telugu and Kannada languages in the royal court.

(iv) In the 16th century, the most detailed account of the empire was provided by the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes and the Italian merchant and writer Fernão Nunes, who visited the kingdom during the reign of Krishnadevaraya, the most celebrated ruler of Vijayanagar. Their accounts, often referred to as the "Chronicles of Paes and Nunes," provide a vivid description of the empire's military strength, administration, and justice system. They also emphasize the religious tolerance and secular nature of the kingdom, with a special focus on the patronage of art, literature, and architecture.

(v) Another Portuguese traveler, Duarte Barbosa, visited the kingdom in the early 16th century and documented the prosperity of the coastal cities of Vijayanagar, such as Calicut and Cannanore, which were thriving centers of maritime trade.

In conclusion, the accounts of these foreign travelers provide invaluable insights into the socio-economic, political, and cultural aspects of the Vijayanagar Kingdom. They serve as essential sources for understanding the history of the empire and its impact on the Indian subcontinent.

(c) How did international trade support urbanisation in North India during the 13-14th century CE.       (10 Marks)

During the 13th and 14th centuries CE, international trade played a significant role in supporting urbanisation in North India. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE led to political stability and economic growth in the region, which in turn facilitated the expansion of trade networks.

(i) One of the main factors behind the growth of international trade was the strategic location of North India along the Silk Route, which connected the Indian subcontinent to Central Asia, China, and Europe. This enabled the exchange of goods, ideas, and people, contributing to the growth of cities and towns.

(ii) The Delhi Sultanate encouraged international trade by maintaining a strong administrative system, which provided security and infrastructure for traders. They constructed roads, bridges, and caravanserais to ensure the smooth movement of goods and people. This led to the growth of urban centres along important trade routes, such as Delhi, Lahore, Multan, and Jaunpur.

(iii) Additionally, the Sultanate fostered trade relations with other regions, such as Central Asia, Persia, and the Middle East, which brought in valuable goods like horses, silk, spices, precious stones, and metalwork. Indian products like textiles, spices, and handicrafts were in high demand in international markets, leading to a flourishing export trade.

(iv) The growth of international trade also led to the development of port cities on the western coast of India, such as Surat, Cambay, and Broach. These ports served as gateways for North Indian goods to be exported to other regions, particularly the Arab world and East Africa.

(v) The increasing trade activities attracted various communities to settle in these urban centres, leading to a rise in population and contributing to urbanisation. These communities, such as the Rajputs, Jats, and Banjaras, played a crucial role in trade by supplying goods and providing services like transportation and warehousing.

In conclusion, international trade during the 13th and 14th centuries CE significantly supported urbanisation in North India by providing economic opportunities, attracting diverse communities, and fostering the growth of urban centres along important trade routes. The Delhi Sultanate's efforts to ensure political stability and develop infrastructure further facilitated the expansion of trade networks and contributed to the overall urbanisation of the region.

(d) Evaluate the aim and impact of the translation of Sanskrit scriptures into Persian language during Mughal period.       (10 Marks)

The translation of Sanskrit scriptures into Persian language during the Mughal period had both cultural and political aims, and its impact was significant in fostering intellectual exchanges, promoting cross-cultural understanding and assimilation, and consolidating Mughal rule.

(i) One primary aim of the translations was to bridge the gap between the Hindu and Muslim communities in Mughal India. Emperor Akbar was particularly interested in fostering religious tolerance and understanding. The translation of Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata (Razmnama), Ramayana, and Atharva Veda into Persian allowed for better comprehension and appreciation of the Hindu religion by the Muslim ruling class. It also facilitated the spread of knowledge and ideas from ancient Indian texts to the Islamic world.

(ii) Another important aim was to legitimize Mughal rule by associating the empire with the rich cultural heritage of India. By sponsoring translations of Sanskrit texts and patronizing scholars, the Mughals sought to create an image of themselves as enlightened rulers who valued knowledge and sought to connect with the traditions of the land they ruled. This helped to establish their authority and improve their standing in the eyes of the Indian population.

(iii) The impact of these translations was multifaceted. On a cultural level, the translations led to increased intellectual exchanges between the Islamic and Hindu scholarly communities. Persian translations of Sanskrit works were integrated into the curriculum of Mughal schools, exposing more people to the knowledge contained in these texts. Furthermore, the translations helped to preserve and transmit ancient Indian knowledge to future generations, both within and outside India.

(iv) On a political level, the translations played a role in promoting religious tolerance and assimilation. They allowed the Mughals to present themselves as patrons of both Islamic and Hindu traditions and facilitated dialogue between the two religious communities. This contributed to the relative stability and harmony of the Mughal Empire during its peak, particularly under Akbar's rule.

In conclusion, the translation of Sanskrit scriptures into Persian language during the Mughal period aimed to promote cross-cultural understanding, religious tolerance, and political legitimacy. Its impact was significant in fostering intellectual exchanges, preserving ancient Indian knowledge, and consolidating Mughal rule in India.

(e) Examine the sources of the history of Chhatrapati Shivaji with special reference to Shivabharat and Sabhasad Bakhar.       (10 Marks)

(i) Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire, remains a pivotal figure in Indian history. To understand his life and achievements, historians rely on various sources, including contemporary records, later historical narratives, and oral traditions. Two primary sources that provide an insight into Shivaji's life and reign are the Shivabharat and Sabhasad Bakhar.

(ii) Shivabharat, composed by Kavi Bhushan in the late 17th century, is a poetic biography of Shivaji. Written in Braj Bhasha, a literary language popular in North India, it presents the Maratha king as an incarnation of Lord Shiva. The work extols Shivaji's military prowess, administrative skills, and noble character. It also provides details about his campaigns, alliances, and conquests, which helps historians reconstruct the political and military history of the Maratha Empire. However, as an eulogistic text, Shivabharat tends to exaggerate the king's achievements and virtues, making it necessary for historians to corroborate its claims with other sources.

(iii) Sabhasad Bakhar, authored by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad in the early 18th century, is another crucial source for studying Shivaji's life. It is a prose chronicle written in Marathi and provides a more detailed account of Shivaji's reign than Shivabharat. Sabhasad Bakhar focuses on the administrative and military aspects of his rule, describing his conquests, forts, and naval expeditions. It also sheds light on Shivaji's governance, including his revenue system, land administration, and judicial reforms. However, Sabhasad Bakhar was written several decades after Shivaji's death, which raises questions about the accuracy and reliability of its account.

In conclusion, both Shivabharat and Sabhasad Bakhar serve as significant sources for understanding Chhatrapati Shivaji's life and reign. While Shivabharat offers a poetic and eulogistic perspective, Sabhasad Bakhar provides a more detailed and factual account of his rule. Historians studying Shivaji must analyze these sources critically, cross-referencing them with other contemporary accounts and archaeological evidence to construct an accurate and comprehensive picture of the Maratha king's life and legacy.

Q.6. Answer the following:

The defeat of Northern Indian States against the Turkish invasion can be attributed to a variety of factors that include political, military, socio-economic, and cultural aspects. Some of the key causes are as follows:

1. Political Fragmentation: The political landscape of Northern India during the time of the Turkish invasion was highly fragmented, with numerous regional states and smaller kingdoms. This political disunity made it difficult for Indian rulers to form a united front against the invaders. The lack of a strong central authority also meant that local rulers were more focused on their rivalries and territorial gains, rather than on defending their territories from external threats.

2. Military Inferiority: The Indian states had a weak military infrastructure, which was no match for the highly skilled and well-organized Turkish forces. The Indian armies primarily relied on infantry and elephant corps, whereas the Turks had a strong cavalry, which was highly mobile and effective in battles. The Indian soldiers also lacked the advanced weaponry and armor used by the Turks, which put them at a significant disadvantage.

3. Ineffective Leadership: The Indian rulers and generals at the time were often indecisive and lacked strategic foresight. They failed to understand the gravity of the Turkish threat and did not make adequate preparations to counter it. In many instances, the Indian rulers were more concerned with personal ambitions and court intrigues, rather than ensuring the safety and integrity of their territories.

4. Socio-Economic Factors: The Indian society during this period was highly stratified, with rigid caste hierarchies and social divisions. This made it difficult for rulers to mobilize the masses for a collective defense against the invaders. The relatively lower social status of soldiers in Indian society also contributed to the lack of motivation and morale in the military forces.

5. Religious Factors: The Turkish invaders were primarily Muslim, while the majority of the Indian population was Hindu. The religious differences played a role in the inability of the Indian rulers to forge a united front against the invaders. The Turkish forces, on the other hand, were driven by the zeal of spreading Islam, which gave them a sense of purpose and unity.

6. Psychological Factors: The early successes of the Turkish forces in India, especially the famous victory of Mahmud of Ghazni over the Hindu Shahi dynasty and the sack of the Somnath temple, created a sense of fear and awe in the minds of the Indian rulers. This psychological impact further weakened the resolve of the Indian states to resist the invaders.

Examples of Turkish invasions and the defeat of Northern Indian states:

(a) The invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030 CE): Mahmud of Ghazni launched multiple invasions into Northern India, defeating several Indian rulers like Jayapala, Anandapala, and Trilochanapala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty. He also attacked and plundered numerous cities and temples, culminating in the infamous sack of the Somnath temple in 1025 CE.

(b) The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192 CE): The Turkish ruler, Muhammad Ghori, defeated the Rajput ruler Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, resulting in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India. The Indian forces were unable to adapt to the superior military tactics and strategies employed by the Turkish cavalry.

(c) The invasion of Timur (1398 CE): The Central Asian conqueror, Timur, invaded Northern India and captured Delhi, causing widespread destruction and massacres. The Indian forces, led by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, were unable to resist the superior military might of Timur's forces.

In conclusion, the defeat of Northern Indian states against the Turkish invasion can be attributed to a combination of political fragmentation, military inferiority, ineffective leadership, socio-economic factors, religious differences, and psychological factors. These factors made it difficult for the Indian rulers to mount a united and effective defense against the invading forces, leading to their eventual defeat and the establishment of Turkish rule in India.

(b) Amuktamalyada dwells much upon the relationship of fort, Brahmanas and dispersed tribal groups. Comment.       (15 Marks)

Amuktamalyada, a famous Telugu poem written by the Vijayanagara emperor Krishna Deva Raya, is a significant work that sheds light on the socio-political and cultural aspects of the time. It deals with the life of Andal, a Vaishnavite female saint, and her devotion to Lord Vishnu. The poem also provides valuable information about the relationship between forts, Brahmanas, and dispersed tribal groups in the context of the Vijayanagara Empire.

(a) The Vijayanagara Empire, which was established in the 14th century, was known for its extensive fortifications and grand architecture, symbolizing the power and prestige of the empire. Forts played a crucial role in the military and administrative strategies of the empire, providing protection and serving as centers of economic and political activities. These forts were often built in strategic locations, such as hilltops and along trade routes, to ensure the security of the empire.

(b) The Brahmanas were an influential group in the Vijayanagara Empire, serving as advisors, administrators, and scholars. They were often granted land and other privileges by the rulers, which allowed them to establish their dominance in the socio-political landscape. The Brahmanas played a significant role in the propagation of religious and cultural values, and their presence was considered essential for the functioning of a fort. Amuktamalyada mentions that Krishna Deva Raya, who was a devout Vaishnavite, took special care to ensure the welfare of the Brahmanas and their temples in his empire.

(c) Dispersed tribal groups were also an integral part of the Vijayanagara Empire's social fabric. These tribal communities, such as the Kurubas, Vokkaligas, and Nayakas, were often martial in nature and provided essential military support to the empire. The Vijayanagara rulers recognized the importance of these tribal groups and sought their allegiance by granting them land, titles, and various privileges. In Amuktamalyada, there are references to these tribal chieftains being invited to the royal court and being honored by the emperor.

(d) The relationship between forts, Brahmanas, and dispersed tribal groups in the context of the Vijayanagara Empire can be seen as a reflection of the empire's political, social, and cultural dynamics. The forts served as symbols of power and provided a secure base for the functioning of the empire. The Brahmanas, with their knowledge and religious authority, played a crucial role in the administration and propagation of cultural values. The dispersed tribal groups, with their military prowess and loyalty, contributed to the stability and security of the empire.

In conclusion, Amuktamalyada serves as an important literary source for understanding the relationship between forts, Brahmanas, and dispersed tribal groups in the context of the Vijayanagara Empire. It highlights the significance of these elements in the empire's political, social, and cultural landscape and provides valuable insights into the functioning of the Vijayanagara administration and society during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.

(c) Elaborate upon the agrarian reforms of Alauddin Khilji.       (20 Marks)

Alauddin Khilji, the second ruler of the Khilji dynasty, ascended the throne in 1296 AD and ruled until 1316 AD. He is considered one of the most powerful and ambitious rulers in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. Alauddin Khilji introduced a series of agrarian reforms to strengthen his economic and political power, which played significant roles in the expansion and consolidation of his empire. Some of the key agrarian reforms initiated by Alauddin Khilji are as follows:

1. Revenue assessment and land measurement: Alauddin Khilji introduced a more systematic and accurate system of land measurement and revenue assessment. He appointed revenue officers, namely Amils and Karkuns, who were responsible for measuring land and assessing the revenue. This helped in maintaining a uniform revenue system and ensuring that the state received its due share of revenue from the peasants.

2. Introduction of the 'Biswa' system: Alauddin Khilji introduced the 'Biswa' system, which was a unit of measurement used to assess land revenue. One Biswa was equal to 1/20th part of a Bigha. This system helped in ensuring a more equitable distribution of revenue among peasants and landowners.

3. Land classification: Land was classified into three categories – Polaj, Parauti, and Chachar, based on their productivity levels. Polaj lands were the most fertile, while Chachar lands were the least fertile. The revenue assessment was done accordingly, with Polaj lands attracting the highest revenue and Chachar lands, the least.

4. Revenue Collection: Alauddin Khilji centralized the revenue collection system to minimize corruption and ensure that the state received its due share. He replaced the earlier system of Iqta (grant of land in lieu of salary) with a cash-based salary system for his officials, which reduced their dependence on revenue collected from the land.

5. Price control and market regulation: Alauddin Khilji introduced a comprehensive system of market regulation and price control to ensure the availability of essential commodities at reasonable prices for both urban and rural populations. This helped in protecting the interests of the peasants and preventing their exploitation by the traders and middlemen.

6. Encouragement of Agriculture: Alauddin Khilji introduced several measures to encourage agriculture and increase productivity. He provided financial assistance and incentives to the peasants for the expansion of cultivation. He also encouraged the use of advanced agricultural techniques and irrigation facilities to boost crop production.

7. Strict revenue administration: Alauddin Khilji implemented a strict revenue administration system to ensure proper collection and timely payment of revenue by the peasants. Defaulters were severely punished, and in some cases, their lands were confiscated.

8. Abolition of the 'Khalisa' system: Alauddin Khilji abolished the 'Khalisa' system, which was a practice of reserving a portion of the land revenue for the Sultan's personal use. This helped in ensuring a more equitable distribution of revenue among the state, the landowners, and the peasants.
These agrarian reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji had a significant impact on the economy and society of the Delhi Sultanate. They helped in increasing agricultural production, improving revenue collection, and strengthening the economic base of the empire. The increased revenue enabled Alauddin Khilji to expand his empire and maintain a large standing army, which played a crucial role in his military conquests and consolidation of power. Moreover, these reforms also contributed to the overall welfare of the peasants and the stability of the empire during his reign.

Q.7. Answer the following:

Village Polity and Economy of Medieval Deccan:

The medieval Deccan refers to the region in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent, which includes present-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra. During this period, the Deccan was under the rule of various dynasties such as the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Kakatiyas, Yadavas, Hoysalas, and the Vijayanagara Empire. The village polity and economy in medieval Deccan were characterized by self-sufficient and well-organized agrarian communities, with a distinct social hierarchy and economic structure.

1. Village Polity:

(i) The basic unit of administration in medieval Deccan was the village, which was governed by a village council, known as the Sabhapati, or Gram Panchayat. This council consisted of representatives from various social groups, including landowners, traders, artisans, and religious leaders. The village council was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and resolving disputes among the villagers.

(ii) The village headman, known as the Patel or Deshmukh, played a crucial role in the village administration. He was responsible for maintaining land records, collecting taxes, and ensuring the overall welfare of the village. The headman was assisted by a team of officials, such as the Kulkarni (village accountant) and the Chavadi (village messenger).

(iii) The village administration was also influenced by the larger political context of the Deccan, as powerful regional rulers granted land and administrative rights to local chieftains and feudatories who, in turn, governed their territories with a considerable degree of autonomy. These local chieftains and feudatories were responsible for maintaining local order, providing military support to their overlords, and ensuring the smooth functioning of the village economy.

2. Village Economy:

(i) The economy of medieval Deccan was predominantly agrarian, with agriculture being the main occupation of the majority of the population. The main crops cultivated were rice, millets, pulses, oilseeds, and cotton. The agricultural practices were characterized by the use of irrigation systems, such as wells, tanks, and canals, which were built and maintained by the village community.

(ii) The village economy was self-sufficient, with various occupational groups providing services and goods required by the villagers. These groups included artisans, such as blacksmiths, potters, weavers, and goldsmiths, as well as traders, who played a crucial role in connecting the village economy with regional and interregional trade networks.

(iii) The land in the village was owned by a variety of individuals and institutions, such as private landowners, temples, and the state. Land was usually granted as a gift, or inam, by the ruling authorities to individuals or institutions in recognition of their services. The land was cultivated by tenant farmers, who paid a share of the produce to the landowner as rent or tax.

(iv) The exchange of goods and services in the village economy was primarily based on the barter system, although coins, particularly of the Vijayanagara Empire, were also used for transactions.

In conclusion, the village polity and economy of medieval Deccan were characterized by a well-organized and self-sufficient agrarian system, with a strong emphasis on community participation and cooperation. The village administration was influenced by the larger political context of the Deccan, with local chieftains and feudatories playing a crucial role in maintaining order and ensuring the smooth functioning of the village economy. The economy was primarily agrarian, with a strong emphasis on self-sufficiency and an intricate network of occupational groups providing goods and services to the village community.

(b) Some new crafts production were introduced by the Turks. Comment.       (15 Marks)

The Turks, who started arriving in India from the 11th century onwards, significantly contributed to the development of various crafts and industries in the country. Their arrival led to the introduction of new crafts, enhancement of existing crafts, and the blending of Indian and Central Asian styles in various aspects of art and architecture.

Some of the notable crafts introduced or developed by the Turks in India are:

1. Textiles: The Turks were instrumental in introducing new techniques in textile production, such as the use of the spinning wheel (charkha) and the handloom. They also introduced new designs, patterns, and materials, such as silk and velvet, which were previously not common in India. Additionally, the Turks promoted the production of carpets, which became an important craft in regions like Kashmir, Punjab, and Agra.

2. Metalwork: The Turks excelled in metalwork, particularly in the production of weapons, armor, and other military equipment. Their expertise in this field led to the development of various new weapons, such as the composite bow, scimitar, and mace. They also introduced the damascening technique in India, which involved inlaying gold or silver onto iron or steel objects, creating intricate patterns and designs.

3. Ceramic and Pottery: The Turks introduced new techniques in ceramic and pottery production, leading to the development of glazed pottery with vibrant colors and intricate designs. This type of pottery, known as "Sultanabad Ware," was primarily produced in the Delhi Sultanate period and was characterized by its blue and green glazes and intricate floral and geometric patterns.

4. Architecture: The Turks significantly influenced the architectural styles in India, leading to the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture. This style was a fusion of Indian and Central Asian architectural elements, characterized by features such as arches, domes, minarets, and intricate decorative motifs. Some of the notable examples of this style include the Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, and various tombs and mosques built by the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.

5. Painting: The Turks also influenced the development of Indian painting, particularly during the Mughal period. The blending of Indian and Persian styles led to the emergence of the Mughal miniature painting, characterized by its intricate detailing, vibrant colors, and realistic portrayal of subjects. Some of the most famous Mughal miniature artists include Bishandas, Basawan, and Govardhan.

In conclusion, the Turks played a significant role in introducing and developing various crafts and industries in India, which became an essential part of the country's cultural and artistic legacy. Their contributions not only enriched the Indian art and craft scene but also facilitated cross-cultural exchanges and the blending of different artistic traditions.

(c) The mission of Kabir was to preach a religion of love which would unite all castes and creeds. Explain.       (20 Marks)

Kabir, a 15th-century Indian mystic, poet, and saint, played a significant role in the development of the Bhakti movement in India. His mission was to spread the message of love, unity, and devotion to God, transcending the boundaries of caste, creed, and religion. Kabir's teachings aimed at promoting social harmony and spiritual growth by emphasizing the significance of a personal relationship with God, rather than focusing on religious rituals and dogmas. His teachings are an amalgamation of elements from Hinduism and Islam, making his message universal and accessible to people from different religious backgrounds.

Kabir's teachings can be summarized in the following points:

1. Unity of God: Kabir believed in a single, formless, and all-pervading divine power, which is present in all living beings. He rejected the concept of multiple gods and goddesses, as well as the idol worship practiced in both Hinduism and Islam. He emphasized that the ultimate goal of human life is to realize and experience the divine presence within oneself.

2. Rejection of caste system: Kabir vehemently opposed the caste system, which was deeply ingrained in Indian society during his time. He preached that all human beings are equal and should be treated with love and respect, irrespective of their caste or social status. He often used metaphors and examples in his poetry to criticize the caste system and its discriminatory practices.

3. Emphasis on inner devotion: Kabir emphasized the importance of inner devotion and personal experience of God, rather than relying on rituals, scriptures, or religious authorities. He urged his followers to develop a direct relationship with God through constant remembrance, love, and surrender.

4. Criticism of religious dogmas and rituals: Kabir criticized the excessive focus on religious rituals, pilgrimages, and other external practices in both Hinduism and Islam. He believed that such practices did not lead to spiritual growth and were often used by religious authorities to exploit the masses. Instead, he advocated for a simple and sincere approach to spirituality, centered around love and devotion to God.

Several examples from Kabir's life and teachings illustrate his mission to preach a religion of love and unity:

1. Kabir's own background: Kabir's life itself is an example of the unity of castes and creeds. He was believed to have been born to a Muslim family but was raised by a Hindu family. This diverse upbringing allowed him to understand and appreciate the teachings of both religions and incorporate them into his own philosophy.

2. Kabir's poetry: Kabir's verses, known as 'Dohas' or 'Kabir Ke Dohe,' are simple yet profound, and they convey his message of love and unity in a way that is easily understood by people from different religious and social backgrounds. His poetry emphasizes the importance of inner devotion and condemns the hypocrisy of religious rituals and caste discrimination.

3. Kabir's disciples: Kabir's followers came from various castes and religious backgrounds, reflecting his message of social harmony and unity. His closest disciple, Dharamdas, was a Brahmin, while other disciples included people from different castes and religious affiliations.

In conclusion, Kabir's mission to preach a religion of love and unity was aimed at promoting social harmony, transcending the boundaries of caste, creed, and religion. His teachings continue to inspire people across the world, emphasizing the importance of love, devotion, and the oneness of all human beings.

Q.8. Answer the following:

Sher Shah Suri, also known as Farid Khan, was an Afghan ruler who established the Sur dynasty in India. His reign, though short-lived (1540-1545), had a profound impact on the political, economic, and administrative setup of the Indian subcontinent. He introduced several reforms that not only strengthened his empire but also provided the foundation for the efficient administration of succeeding rulers like Akbar.

Trade and Commerce:

1. Road Infrastructure: Sher Shah laid down the foundation of a vast network of roads that connected major cities and trade hubs. The most famous of these was the Grand Trunk Road, which was later expanded by the Mughals. This road stretched from Sonargaon in Bengal to Peshawar, facilitating the movement of goods and people.

2. Sarais: Sher Shah built numerous sarais (rest houses) along the highways to provide security and comfort to the traders. These sarais served as resting places for travelers, and also provided facilities like food, water, and fodder for animals.

3. Standardized Currency: Sher Shah introduced a uniform currency system, the silver Rupiya, which became the standard coinage throughout his empire. This facilitated trade by removing the confusion caused by multiple currencies.

4. Trade Regulations: He implemented several trade regulations that ensured the safety of traders and their goods. For example, he established a system of passes for traders and their merchandise to ensure that they were not harassed by officials.

Administration:

1. Centralization: Sher Shah Suri established a centralized administrative system, consisting of four main departments – revenue, military, judiciary, and public works.

2. Division of Empire: He divided his empire into 47 sarkars (provinces), which were further subdivided into smaller units called parganas. Each sarkar was headed by a shiqdar (governor), who was responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting revenue.

3. Revenue System: Sher Shah introduced a new land revenue system, wherein the revenue was collected on the basis of the actual produce of the land, thus ensuring a fair assessment of taxes. He also introduced a system of revenue farming, where the right to collect revenue was auctioned to the highest bidder.

4. Military Reforms: Sher Shah reorganized the army and introduced an efficient system for recruitment, training, and payment of soldiers. He also established a network of forts and garrisons throughout his empire to maintain law and order and protect the frontiers.

Agricultural Reforms:

1. Encouragement of Agriculture: Sher Shah took several measures to promote agriculture. He granted tax concessions to farmers and provided them with loans to buy seeds, tools, and other agricultural inputs.

2. Irrigation: Sher Shah understood the importance of irrigation for agriculture and ordered the construction of canals and wells to provide water for irrigation. He also repaired and extended existing canals, such as the Shershah Suri Canal in Punjab, which was later expanded by the Mughals.

3. Land Reclamation: He encouraged the reclamation of wasteland for cultivation by offering incentives to farmers who converted barren land into arable land.

In conclusion, Sher Shah Suri’s contribution to trade and commerce, administration, and agricultural reforms in India is significant. His reforms laid the foundation for a more efficient and organized system of governance, which was later adopted and expanded upon by the Mughal Empire. Sher Shah's focus on infrastructure development, standardized currency, and the promotion of agriculture had a lasting impact on the Indian economy and society.

(b) Make an estimate of the development of paintings under Mughal rulers with special reference to colours, technique, themes and influences on them.       (15 Marks)

The development of paintings under the Mughal rulers can be traced back to the early 16th century when the Mughal Empire was established in India. The Mughal emperors were great patrons of art and during their reign, painting reached new heights in terms of technique, use of colours, themes, and influences.

Colours: Mughal paintings were known for their vivid and rich use of colours. Artists used natural colours extracted from minerals, vegetables, and precious stones. The colours used were bright, bold, and striking, such as red, blue, green, and gold. The pigments were carefully prepared and mixed with binders to achieve a desired consistency and texture. Some of the commonly used pigments included lapis lazuli for blue, cinnabar for red, and orpiment for yellow.

Technique: The Mughal painters were highly skilled in their techniques and mainly employed the traditional Persian style of painting, which was characterized by minute details, fine brushwork, and a two-dimensional perspective. The artists used fine brushes made of squirrel hair, which allowed them to achieve intricate detailing and precise lines in their work. The paintings were done on paper, cloth, or walls and were generally small in size, making them portable and easy to preserve.

Themes: Mughal paintings mainly revolved around themes such as court life, hunting scenes, battles, portraits, and illustrations of historical and literary texts. They also depicted flora, fauna, and landscapes, showcasing the beauty of the natural world. Some of the most famous Mughal paintings include the illustrations of the Akbarnama, the Baburnama, and the Tuti-nama.

Influences: Mughal paintings were heavily influenced by Persian, Central Asian, and Indian artistic styles. The Persian influence was introduced by artists who were brought to India by the Mughal emperors, particularly during the reign of Humayun and Akbar. The Indian influence came from the indigenous Rajput and Deccani schools of painting, which had a strong tradition of miniature painting in India. The fusion of these styles gave birth to a unique Mughal painting style, which was marked by its distinct features and high-quality craftsmanship.

Some examples of Mughal paintings and painters:

1. Daswant: A prominent Mughal painter during Akbar's reign, Daswant was known for his work in the Akbarnama, which chronicled the life and achievements of Emperor Akbar. His work displayed a keen observation of nature and human emotions.

2. Bishan Das: He was a celebrated portrait painter during the reign of Emperor Jahangir. His most famous work is the portrait of Emperor Jahangir holding a picture of the Madonna.

3. Govardhan: A renowned painter during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan, Govardhan was known for his skill in depicting human emotions and expressions. His works include the famous painting of Shah Jahan and his sons, which showcases the tender bond between the emperor and his children.

In conclusion, the development of paintings under the Mughal rulers was marked by a rich use of colours, innovative techniques, diverse themes, and a unique fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian influences. The Mughal emperors' patronage played a crucial role in shaping the course of Indian art history and leaving behind a rich artistic legacy.

(c) Critically evaluate history of the Eighteenth Century India with reference to culture and economy.       (20 Marks)

The eighteenth century in India was a period of significant change and transition, marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire, the rise of regional powers, and the expanding presence of European trading companies. Despite the political turmoil, this period also witnessed remarkable developments in culture and economy. In this essay, we will critically evaluate the history of eighteenth-century India, focusing on its cultural and economic aspects.

(i) The cultural sphere of the eighteenth-century India was marked by both continuity and change. The Mughal court continued to be a center of cultural patronage, with the emperor's patronage of poets, painters, and musicians, and the production of numerous works of history, poetry, and art. The Mughal miniature paintings, for example, reached their zenith during this period, with artists such as Nainsukh and Mir Kalan Khan producing some of the most exquisite works in the genre.

(ii) Moreover, the regional courts that emerged in the eighteenth century, such as the Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs, and the Nawabs of Awadh and Bengal, also played a vital role in fostering cultural life. They patronized various forms of art and architecture, including the development of regional styles of painting, such as the Pahari and Rajput schools, and the construction of magnificent buildings, like the Shaniwar Wada in Pune and the Imambara in Lucknow.

(iii) However, the eighteenth century also saw the gradual erosion of the Persian language as the lingua franca of the Indian elite, as regional languages like Marathi, Bengali, and Urdu gained prominence. Literary works in these languages flourished, with poets like Ramprasad Sen in Bengal and Eknath in Maharashtra composing devotional songs and verses. The rise of Urdu, in particular, became a crucial development in Indian culture, with poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Sauda, and Nazir Akbarabadi contributing to the evolution of the ghazal and other forms of Urdu poetry.

(iv) In the realm of economy, the eighteenth century was a period of significant commercial and agrarian expansion. Trade and commerce flourished, driven by the growth of regional markets and the increasing demand for Indian goods in Europe. The textile industry, especially, witnessed remarkable growth, with Indian cotton and silk fabrics becoming highly sought-after commodities in the European markets. The city of Surat, for instance, emerged as a prominent center of textile production and trade, with its weavers and merchants catering to both domestic and international markets.

(v) Furthermore, Indian merchants and bankers played a crucial role in financing trade and commerce during this period. The hundis (bills of exchange) and sarrafs (money changers) facilitated the smooth operation of trade and credit networks, enabling the flow of goods and capital across vast distances. The Jagat Seths of Bengal, for example, were a prominent banking family who not only financed trade but also lent money to the Nawabs and the British East India Company.

(vi) However, the eighteenth century also saw the increasing penetration of European trading companies, particularly the British East India Company, into the Indian economy. Their access to superior naval power and the ability to secure favorable trading concessions from the declining Mughal Empire allowed them to gradually establish a monopoly over the lucrative Indian trade. Consequently, they increasingly controlled the terms of trade, often to the detriment of Indian merchants and producers. The infamous Bengal Famine of 1770, for example, was exacerbated by the Company's policies of revenue extraction and export of grain, leading to widespread devastation and loss of life.

In conclusion, the eighteenth century in India was a period of significant cultural and economic developments, marked by the flourishing of regional art forms, the growth of trade and commerce, and the emergence of regional powers. However, it was also a period of political fragmentation and the increasing dominance of European trading companies, which would eventually pave the way for the colonial conquest of India in the nineteenth century.