UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2020: History Paper 2 (Section- A) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : (5x10=50)

Maharaja Ranjit Singh, also known as the Lion of Punjab, was a great Sikh ruler who established the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century, unifying the disparate Sikh territories in the Punjab region. His death in 1839 led to a power vacuum and widespread chaos, which had significant consequences for the region and its people.

(i) The period of anarchy that followed Ranjit Singh's death can be traced back to the absence of a strong and capable successor. His successors, Kharak Singh, Nau Nihal Singh, and Sher Singh, were either weak, inexperienced, or faced internal opposition, which made it difficult for them to consolidate power and maintain order in the Punjab.

(i) The power vacuum created by Ranjit Singh's death also led to the resurgence of internal factions and court intrigues. The Sikh nobility, known as the Sardars, started vying for power and control over the Sikh Empire. This struggle for power led to several assassinations, betrayals, and shifting alliances, further contributing to the instability of the region.

(iii) Moreover, the Sikh army, which was the backbone of Ranjit Singh's rule, became increasingly uncontrollable and unruly during this period. The army started interfering in the administration and demanded more power and privileges, leading to a decline in the efficiency and effectiveness of governance in the Punjab.

(iv) The anarchy and chaos that enveloped Punjab after Ranjit Singh's death also caught the attention of the British East India Company, which had been steadily consolidating its control over India. The British saw the instability in Punjab as an opportunity to expand their territorial and strategic interests in the region. This eventually led to the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1846 and 1848-1849), which resulted in the annexation of Punjab by the British in 1849.

In conclusion, the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 marked the beginning of a tumultuous period in the history of Punjab. The absence of a strong and capable successor, the resurgence of internal factions, and the increasing interference of the Sikh army in governance led to widespread anarchy and chaos. The British East India Company capitalized on this instability, eventually annexing Punjab after the Anglo-Sikh Wars. This period serves as an important reminder of the critical role strong leadership and stable governance play in maintaining order and prosperity for a nation.

(b) "In the initial stages, when Indian nationalism was immature, just sprouting, it found expression in many liberal religio-reform movements."       (10 Marks)

In the early stages of Indian nationalism, the socio-religious reform movements played a crucial role in shaping the outlook of the Indian society. As the Indian nationalism was still in its infancy, it needed a strong foundation to grow upon. The liberal religio-reform movements provided that foundation by addressing various social, religious, and cultural issues prevalent in the Indian society.

(i) Some of these movements include the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission. These movements aimed to reform the Indian society by promoting rational thinking, social equality, and religious unity. They emphasized on the need for a modern education system and social reforms like the abolition of caste discrimination, the promotion of widow remarriage, and the upliftment of women.

The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, played a crucial role in the development of Indian nationalism by initiating social and religious reforms. Roy's efforts led to the abolition of Sati and the promotion of widow remarriage. He also advocated for Western education in India, which eventually led to the emergence of the Indian intelligentsia who later played a key role in the Indian freedom struggle.

(ii) Similarly, the Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, aimed at reforming Hinduism by discarding superstitious beliefs and rituals. Dayananda's motto of "Back to the Vedas" encouraged a rational and scientific approach to religion, which helped in shaping the Indian nationalist thought.

(iii) The Ramakrishna Mission, founded by Swami Vivekananda, aimed at promoting religious harmony, social service, and spiritual upliftment. Vivekananda's message of universal brotherhood and tolerance played a significant role in the development of Indian nationalism.

In conclusion, the liberal religio-reform movements played a pivotal role in the initial stages of Indian nationalism. They not only helped in reforming the Indian society but also provided a strong intellectual foundation for the growth of the nationalist movement. These movements contributed to the emergence of a new generation of educated Indians who later played a crucial role in the Indian freedom struggle. The sense of unity and shared identity fostered by these movements laid the groundwork for a united struggle against colonial rule, which ultimately led to India's independence.

(c) "In the early twentieth century, there came into existence a number of women's   organisations, which operated more actively in the public arena and focused more directly on women's political and legal rights."         (10 Marks)

The early twentieth century marked a significant turning point in the history of women's rights and empowerment in India. The emergence of various women's organisations during this period played a crucial role in bringing women's issues to the forefront of the national discourse and eventually led to the granting of women's political and legal rights.

(i) One of the prominent women's organisations during this period was the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) established in 1927. AIWC aimed at improving women's education, health, and social status, as well as promoting their political and legal rights. The organisation actively participated in the freedom struggle and advocated for women's suffrage, which eventually led to the granting of voting rights to women in the Government of India Act of 1935.

(ii) Another significant organisation was the National Council of Women in India (NCWI), established in 1925 as a branch of the International Council of Women. The NCWI worked to improve the socio-economic conditions of women and advocated for their political rights. It also played a significant role in raising awareness about issues like child marriage, female infanticide, and purdah system.

(iii) The Women's Indian Association (WIA), founded in 1917 by Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, and other prominent women leaders, also worked tirelessly to secure women's rights. The WIA played a crucial role in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, which resulted in the reservation of seats for women in local self-government bodies.

(iv) Besides these organisations, several regional women's organisations also emerged during this period, such as the Bharat Stree Mahamandal (BSM) in Allahabad, the Mahila Seva Samaj in Bengaluru, and the Andhra Mahila Sabha in Andhra Pradesh. These organisations worked at the grassroots level to address various issues faced by women, such as access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.

The collective efforts of these organisations led to significant improvements in women's status in society and ultimately contributed to the enfranchisement of women in India. The granting of women's suffrage in 1935 was a testament to their relentless efforts to secure equal rights for women. Moreover, the active participation of women in the Indian freedom struggle under the guidance of these organisations laid the foundation for the inclusion of gender equality in the Indian Constitution adopted in 1950.

(d) "The Trade Union movement in India not only supported the call for national struggle at critical juncture, but also impact its course and character in several ways”.       (10 Marks)

The Trade Union movement in India played a significant role in shaping the national struggle for independence. It not only supported the call for national struggle but also impacted its course and character in several ways. This can be observed through various instances from the history of the Indian National Movement.

(i) Firstly, the Trade Union movement provided a platform for the working class to express their grievances and demands. This led to the emergence of a strong working-class consciousness, which eventually became an integral part of the national struggle. The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC), established in 1920, played a crucial role in mobilizing the working class and aligning them with the cause of national freedom.

(ii) Secondly, the Trade Union movement helped in spreading political awareness among the workers. The involvement of prominent leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Subhas Chandra Bose, and V.V. Giri in the movement brought political dimensions to the workers' struggles. This not only augmented the support base for the national movement but also added a radical element to it.

(iii) Thirdly, the Trade Union movement played a crucial role during the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934) and the Quit India Movement (1942). The workers, under the leadership of their unions, participated actively in these movements by organizing strikes, hartals, and demonstrations. This not only disrupted the functioning of the British administration but also showcased the unity and determination of the Indian masses.
Moreover, the Trade Union movement contributed to the shaping of the post-independence political and economic landscape of India. The experience and expertise of the trade union leaders in organizing and mobilizing the working class played a significant role in the formulation of the socialist policies and labor laws in independent India.

In conclusion, the Trade Union movement in India played a pivotal role in supporting and shaping the national struggle for independence. It successfully mobilized the working class, spread political awareness, and actively participated in the freedom movement. Furthermore, it laid the foundation for the development of a progressive and welfare-oriented approach towards labor in independent India.

(e) “Based on his discussion with Indian leaders , as well as his own perception, Lord Mountbatten soon came to the conclusion that partition was the only practicable and feasible solution.”       (10 Marks)

Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy of India, arrived in India in March 1947 with the primary objective of transferring power to Indians as quickly and smoothly as possible. He held several discussions and negotiations with Indian leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Mohandas Gandhi, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, to understand their views on India's political future.

(i) The Indian National Congress, led by Nehru and Gandhi, was in favor of a united India, where Hindus and Muslims would coexist peacefully. However, the Muslim League, under Jinnah's leadership, demanded a separate nation for Muslims, later named Pakistan. The two parties were unable to reach a consensus, and the communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims were escalating, resulting in widespread violence and riots.

(ii) Lord Mountbatten, after assessing the situation and considering the opinions of Indian leaders, came to the conclusion that partition was the only practicable and feasible solution to avoid further bloodshed and to ensure a smooth transfer of power. He believed that a united India would not be sustainable in the long run, given the deep religious and cultural differences between Hindus and Muslims.

(iii) The partition plan, known as the Mountbatten Plan, proposed the division of British India into two separate dominions - India and Pakistan. The provinces of Punjab and Bengal would be divided based on the majority of the population's religion, with the Muslim-majority areas going to Pakistan and the Hindu-majority areas to India. Additionally, a referendum would be held in the North-West Frontier Province and the Sylhet district of Assam to decide which dominion they would join.

(iv) Despite the opposition from Gandhi and some other leaders, the Indian National Congress eventually accepted the partition plan, realizing that it was the only viable option to end the communal violence and achieve independence. On 14th and 15th August 1947, Pakistan and India gained their independence, marking the end of British rule in India. However, the partition led to one of the largest human migrations in history and caused massive violence and suffering, with an estimated one million people losing their lives in the process.

In conclusion, Lord Mountbatten's decision to partition India was based on his discussions with Indian leaders and his understanding of the ground realities. Although it resulted in significant human suffering, it was considered the only feasible solution to resolve the political deadlock and ensure a smooth transfer of power. The partition of India remains a crucial event in the history of the Indian subcontinent and continues to shape the political and social dynamics between India and Pakistan.

Q.2. Answer the following:

Joseph François Dupleix was the Governor-General of the French East India Company from 1742 to 1754. He is credited with initiating the policy of intervening in the internal disputes of Indian rulers, thus paving the way for the gradual acquisition of political control over vast territories in India. This technique was later used and perfected by the English East India Company, eventually leading to the establishment of British rule in India.

(i) Dupleix's strategy involved supporting one side in a conflict between Indian rulers, thereby gaining influence and control over the winning side. He used this policy to establish French control over several Indian territories, such as the Carnatic region in South India and the Deccan Plateau.

(ii) One notable example of Dupleix's strategy was during the First and Second Carnatic Wars (1746-1748 and 1749-1754). In these wars, Dupleix supported the claim of Chanda Sahib to the throne of the Carnatic against the British-supported candidate, Anwaruddin. Dupleix provided military support to Chanda Sahib, which enabled him to capture the throne and become Nawab of the Carnatic. In return, Chanda Sahib granted the French several strategic territories and trading rights in the region. This marked the beginning of the French political influence in South India.

(iii) However, Dupleix's strategy ultimately failed due to various reasons, including limited resources, lack of support from the French government, and the superior military and diplomatic skills of the British East India Company under Robert Clive. The British eventually defeated the French in the Carnatic Wars, and Dupleix was recalled to France.

(iv) The English East India Company, under the leadership of Robert Clive and Warren Hastings, adopted and perfected Dupleix's policy of intervening in Indian disputes to gain political control. They used this strategy to gradually expand British influence in several Indian territories, such as Bengal, Avadh, and Mysore.

(v) One of the most prominent examples of the British East India Company's use of this strategy was during the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The Company, under the leadership of Robert Clive, supported one of the contenders for the Nawabship of Bengal, Mir Jafar, against the ruling Nawab, Siraj-ud-Daulah. After the defeat of Siraj-ud-Daulah, Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab, and the British gained significant political influence and control over Bengal, which proved to be a turning point in the establishment of British rule in India.

In conclusion, Joseph François Dupleix's policy of intervening in the internal disputes of Indian rulers to acquire political control over vast territories was a significant development in the history of European colonization in India. This technique, though initially unsuccessful for the French, was later adopted and perfected by the British East India Company, ultimately leading to the establishment of British rule in India.

(b) For long, the Revolt of 1857, has been mistaken to be a mere mutiny of the Indian sepoys in the Bengal army. However, its causes need to be searched for not only in the dissatisfaction of the army, but in a long-drawn process of fundamental social and economic change that upset the peasant communities. Discuss.       (20 Marks)

The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, was a widespread rebellion against the British rule in India. Although the immediate cause of the uprising was the discontent among the Indian sepoys in the Bengal army, it is essential to delve deeper into the long-drawn process of social, economic, and political changes that led to the uprising.

1. Social Causes: The British rule brought about significant changes in the Indian society that impacted the older social customs and traditions. They introduced English education, which threatened the traditional Indian learning system. The missionaries' activities and the British policy of promoting Christianity led to fear among the Indian masses that their religion and way of life were in danger. Also, the British policy of annexing Indian territories on the pretext of misrule or lapse of direct heirs (Doctrine of Lapse) was seen as an attack on Indian customs and traditions.

2. Economic Causes: The British economic policies had a detrimental effect on various sections of the Indian society. The peasants suffered due to the heavy land revenue demands, which led to a large number of land forfeitures and farming families being reduced to landless laborers. The traditional Indian handicraft industries faced stiff competition from the British manufactured goods, which led to the decline of these industries and unemployment of artisans. The British also levied high taxes on Indian goods, which reduced their competitiveness in the international market.

3. Political Causes: The British East India Company's expansionist policies led to the annexation of several Indian territories, which caused widespread resentment among the Indian rulers and their subjects. The annexation of Awadh, Punjab, and other states under the Doctrine of Lapse was seen as a direct assault on the sovereignty of the Indian states. The deposition of the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and the annexation of his territories was a significant political grievance that contributed to the Revolt of 1857.

4. Military Causes: The Indian sepoys in the Bengal army were subjected to racial discrimination, poor pay, and harsh conditions. The introduction of the new Enfield rifle, which required the soldiers to bite the greased cartridge, was the immediate cause of the rebellion, as it hurt the religious sentiments of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers.

In conclusion, the Revolt of 1857 was not merely a mutiny of the Indian sepoys in the Bengal army but a culmination of the deep-seated discontent and grievances of various sections of the Indian society against the British rule. The revolt was fueled by the resentment against the social, economic, political, and military policies of the British, which led to widespread participation of people from different walks of life in the rebellion. While the uprising ultimately failed to achieve its goal of independence, it shook the foundations of British rule in India and marked a turning point in the Indian struggle for freedom.

(c) Do you feel that the Santhal Hool(rebellion) 1855-56, was the most effective tribal movement in pre-1857 India?       (10 Marks)

As an AI language model, I cannot provide personal opinions, but I can provide an analysis of the Santhal Hool and its significance in the context of pre-1857 India.

The Santhal Hool (rebellion) of 1855-56 was undoubtedly one of the most significant tribal movements in pre-1857 India. It was a mass uprising by the Santhal tribes against the British colonial administration, oppressive land revenue policies, moneylenders, and landlords. The rebellion was led by the charismatic Santhal leaders Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, who mobilized the Santhal community against their oppressors.

There were a few factors that made the Santhal Hool particularly effective and significant:

1. Scale and intensity: The Santhal Hool was one of the largest and most widespread tribal revolts in pre-1857 India, involving thousands of Santhal warriors. It was also marked by its intensity, with the Santhal rebels displaying remarkable courage and determination in their fight against the British and their allies.

2. Unity and organization: The Santhal tribes were united under the leadership of Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, who managed to rally the various Santhal clans and sections together in the face of a common enemy. This unity and organization were crucial to the effectiveness of the rebellion.

3. Impact on the British administration: The Santhal Hool posed a significant challenge to the British administration, leading to the deployment of a large number of troops to suppress the rebellion. The uprising also exposed the vulnerabilities and weaknesses of the British colonial system, particularly in the realm of land revenue policies and administration.

4. Influence on future tribal movements: The Santhal Hool served as an inspiration for other tribal movements and uprisings in pre-1857 India, particularly in the Chotanagpur region. Examples include the Munda rebellion led by Birsa Munda and the Kol rebellion in Chota Nagpur.

However, it is essential to contextualize the Santhal Hool within the broader landscape of tribal movements in pre-1857 India. There were several other significant tribal revolts during this period, such as the Koya rebellion (1839-59) in Andhra Pradesh, the Kol uprising (1831-32) in Chota Nagpur, and the Bhil revolt (1822-1846) in western India. Each of these movements had their unique features, aims, and outcomes.

In conclusion, the Santhal Hool was indeed a significant and effective tribal movement in pre-1857 India. However, it is essential to consider it within the broader context of other tribal uprisings and revolts during the same period. Each tribal movement contributed to shaping the history of colonial India in its way, and a comprehensive understanding of this period requires taking all of these movements into account.

Q.3. Answer the following:

The theory of the Indian National Congress (INC) being founded as a 'safety valve' has been a subject of debate among historians. The term 'safety valve' refers to the idea that the INC was established by the British, with the help of A.O. Hume, as a means to channel the frustration and grievances of Indians in a controlled manner, thereby preventing any potential revolutionary uprisings against British colonial rule.

While it is true that the INC, in its early years, adopted a moderate political stance and was not a radical organization, it is an oversimplification to label it solely as a 'safety valve.'

(i) Firstly, the INC's early moderate approach was primarily due to the prevailing socio-political context in India. The Indian intelligentsia at that time believed in gradual political reforms and constitutional methods. They were influenced by liberal ideas from Europe and sought to achieve political rights and representation for Indians within the British colonial framework. Prominent early Congress leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee advocated for a collaborative approach with the British to bring about social and political reforms in India.

(ii) Secondly, even though A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, played a significant role in founding the INC, he did so in response to the genuine demands and aspirations of Indians. Hume was sympathetic to the cause of Indian self-governance and wanted to provide the Indian political class with a platform to express their grievances and demands. The fact that Hume sought the cooperation of Indian leaders in establishing the INC also indicates that it was not solely a British initiative aimed at controlling Indian political aspirations.

(iii) Moreover, the INC's political behavior evolved over time, and it subsequently adopted more radical and mass-oriented strategies under the leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal, who were collectively known as the 'Lal-Bal-Pal' trio. This shift in the INC's political stance disproves the notion that it was merely a 'safety valve' designed to suppress anti-colonial sentiments.

(iv) Furthermore, the INC's contribution to India's freedom struggle cannot be overlooked. It played a crucial role in uniting diverse regions, religions, and social groups under a common platform to fight against British rule. The INC also provided a forum for the development of India's nationalist ideology, which eventually led to the country's independence in 1947.

In conclusion, while the INC's moderate stance in its early years and the involvement of A.O. Hume in its founding might lend some support to the 'safety valve' theory, it is important to consider the broader historical context and the INC's evolution over time. The INC was not merely a 'safety valve' but a dynamic organization that played a significant role in shaping India's political landscape and ultimately achieving independence from British rule.

(b) Do you agree with the fact that the virtual failure of the Non-cooperation and the gloom that descended on nationalist scene, created conditions for revolutionary activities? Discuss.       (20 Marks)

Yes, I agree with the fact that the virtual failure of the Non-cooperation movement and the gloom that descended on the nationalist scene created conditions for revolutionary activities. The Non-cooperation movement, launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920, aimed to achieve self-rule for India through peaceful and non-violent methods. However, the movement was abruptly called off in 1922, following the Chauri Chaura incident where a violent mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen.

The sudden withdrawal of the movement created a sense of disillusionment and disappointment among the Indian masses and nationalists, which in turn laid the groundwork for revolutionary activities. Here are some reasons why the failure of the Non-cooperation movement and the subsequent gloom led to the rise of revolutionary activities:

1. Loss of faith in non-violent methods: The failure of the Non-cooperation movement made many Indian nationalists lose faith in non-violent methods as a means to achieve independence. They believed that only armed struggle could bring about the desired change and liberate India from British rule. This led to the emergence of a more radical and revolutionary section within the nationalist movement, which was eager to adopt a more aggressive stance against the British rule.

2. Emergence of revolutionary leaders: The failure of the Non-cooperation movement and the subsequent disillusionment among the Indian masses led to the rise of several revolutionary leaders. These leaders, such as Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Surya Sen, played a crucial role in mobilizing the Indian youth and inspiring them to join the revolutionary struggle for independence.

3. Formation of revolutionary groups: Several revolutionary groups and organizations were formed during this period, such as the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), and the Chittagong Armoury Raid group. These groups aimed to overthrow the British government through armed struggle and carried out several attacks on British establishments and officials.

4. Spread of revolutionary activities: Revolutionary activities gained momentum during this period, with several high-profile attacks, such as the Kakori Conspiracy (1925), the assassination of British official John Saunders by Bhagat Singh and his associates (1928), and the Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930). These incidents not only demonstrated the extent of revolutionary sentiments but also inspired others to take up the cause.

5. International influences: The rise of revolutionary activities in India was also influenced by international events, such as the success of the Russian Revolution (1917) and the Chinese Revolution (1927). These revolutions, which led to the establishment of socialist governments, inspired Indian revolutionaries to adopt similar methods in their struggle against British rule.

In conclusion, the virtual failure of the Non-cooperation movement and the gloom that descended on the nationalist scene did create conditions for revolutionary activities in India. The disillusionment with non-violent methods, emergence of revolutionary leaders and groups, and the influence of international events led to a surge in revolutionary activities that played a significant role in India's struggle for independence.

(c) Planning was seen as a powerful instrument that could be used to remove regional inequality. Examine.       (10 Marks)

Planning, as a concept, emerged as a significant tool in the post-World War II era when countries, particularly developing ones, sought to achieve rapid economic growth and reduce regional disparities. In this context, planning was viewed as a powerful instrument that could be employed to address regional inequality and promote balanced development.

The rationale behind planning was that the government, with its ability to mobilize resources and coordinate activities, would be in a better position to direct investments and development projects across different regions. This would not only spur economic growth but also ensure that the benefits of growth are equitably distributed among all sections of society.

To examine the role of planning in reducing regional inequality, let us consider the following points:

1. Identification of backward regions: Planning helps in identifying the regions that are lagging in terms of socio-economic development. Through various measures such as per capita income, literacy rate, and access to basic amenities, planners can assess the development status of different regions and prioritize resource allocation accordingly.

2. Focused investments and development projects: Once the backward regions are identified, planning can ensure targeted investments in these areas, aimed at improving infrastructure, creating employment opportunities, and enhancing the overall quality of life. For instance, the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and industrial corridors in underdeveloped regions can attract investments and generate employment.

3. Regional development schemes: Many countries, including India, have initiated regional development schemes as part of their planning process. These schemes are designed to address specific regional issues and promote growth in backward areas. Examples of such schemes in India include the Hill Area Development Programme, Drought Prone Area Programme, and Integrated Tribal Development Programme.

4. Balanced distribution of public services: Planning can help in ensuring that public services such as education, healthcare, and sanitation are made available to all regions, irrespective of their development status. This can contribute to reducing regional disparities in human development indicators.

5. Inter-regional resource transfer: Planning facilitates the transfer of resources from developed regions to backward regions through inter-governmental fiscal transfers, subsidies, and grants. Such transfers can play a significant role in reducing regional inequalities by providing financial support for development activities in less-developed regions.

Despite these potential benefits, the effectiveness of planning in reducing regional inequality has been a subject of debate. Critics argue that planning has often failed to deliver on its promises due to various factors such as bureaucratic inefficiency, corruption, and lack of political will. In many cases, the benefits of development projects have not percolated down to the targeted population, leading to the persistence of regional disparities.

Moreover, in the era of globalization and market-oriented economic policies, the role of planning has diminished considerably. Many countries, including India, have moved away from centralized planning in favor of market-driven strategies for growth and development. While this shift has led to increased economic growth, it has also raised concerns about the widening of regional disparities.

In conclusion, planning as an instrument can potentially help in addressing regional inequality by directing investments and development projects to backward regions and ensuring equitable distribution of public services. However, the success of planning in achieving these objectives depends on its effective implementation and the ability of governments to overcome various challenges associated with the planning process.

Q.4. Answer the following:

(a) “In the divided and contestable space of Indian politics, Gandhiji could claim for himself a centrist position because he alienated neither and tactically combined the goal of the moderates with the means of the extremists." Discuss.       (20 Marks)

The political scenario in India during the early 20th century was marked by the emergence of two distinct ideological factions within the Indian National Congress. One faction, led by moderate leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, advocated for gradual constitutional reforms and dialogue with the British. The other faction, led by extremists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, called for more aggressive means such as boycotts, non-cooperation, and civil disobedience to attain complete independence. In this divided and contestable space, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a unifying figure who managed to claim a centrist position by strategically combining the goals of the moderates and the means of the extremists.

Gandhiji's centrist position can be understood through the following points:

1. Adoption of moderate goals: Gandhiji was a strong advocate of self-rule (Swaraj) and believed in the attainment of political rights for Indians. However, unlike the extremists, he did not demand complete independence from the British rule. Instead, Gandhiji aimed for a more achievable goal of political autonomy within the British Empire, which was in line with the moderate leaders' aspirations. This approach allowed him to build a broad base of support from both the moderate and extremist factions.

2. Use of extremist means: While Gandhiji's goals might have aligned with the moderate faction, his methods were more in sync with the extremists. He believed in the power of non-violent civil disobedience, which involved non-cooperation, boycotts, and protests against the British rule. These methods, inspired by the extremists, were instrumental in mobilizing the masses and generating widespread support for the freedom struggle. Some of the most notable movements led by Gandhiji, such as the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement, and the Quit India Movement, were all based on these extremist principles.

3. Inclusiveness: Gandhiji's centrist position also stemmed from his ability to bring together diverse sections of the Indian society. He not only managed to bridge the gap between the moderates and extremists but also involved marginalized communities like the Dalits, women, and peasants in the freedom struggle. His emphasis on social issues like untouchability, communal harmony, and gender equality resonated with the larger masses, thereby broadening the base of the freedom movement.

4. Tactical flexibility: Another aspect that contributed to Gandhiji's centrist position was his tactical flexibility. He was open to dialogue and negotiations with the British whenever it seemed fruitful, just like the moderates. At the same time, he was ready to adopt a more confrontational stance through non-violent protests and civil disobedience when necessary, as the extremists did. This flexibility allowed him to adapt his strategies based on the situation, making him an effective leader of the Indian freedom struggle.

In conclusion, Mahatma Gandhi's centrist position in the Indian political scenario can be attributed to his strategic combination of moderate goals with extremist means, his inclusive approach, and his tactical flexibility. His ability to bridge the ideological gap between the moderates and extremists and bring together diverse sections of the Indian society played a crucial role in the success of the Indian freedom struggle.

(b) "After Indian Independence, India-China relations started on a high note, but during the course of the coming years India had to face a bitter experience due to the Chinese aggression”. Elaborate.       (20 Marks)

After gaining independence in 1947, India sought to establish friendly relations with its neighbors, including China. Initially, India-China relations were marked by a sense of camaraderie and cooperation, epitomized by the slogan "Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai" (Indians and Chinese are brothers). However, this bonhomie did not last long, as a series of events and disputes led to the deterioration of the relationship, culminating in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.

1. Border Disputes: One of the major reasons for the souring of India-China relations was the unresolved border issues between the two countries. The colonial legacy left behind two contentious borders, the McMahon Line in the eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh) and the Aksai Chin in the western sector (Ladakh). While India considered the McMahon Line as the legitimate boundary, China refused to accept it. In the western sector, both nations laid claim to Aksai Chin, with India arguing that it was part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, while China claimed it as part of Xinjiang province.

2. Tibet Issue: The Tibet issue played a significant role in the deterioration of India-China relations. In 1950, China invaded and annexed Tibet, leading to the flight of the Dalai Lama and thousands of Tibetan refugees to India in 1959. India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama and allowed the establishment of a Tibetan government-in-exile in Dharamsala. This was perceived by China as interference in its internal affairs and a challenge to its sovereignty over Tibet.

3. Forward Policy: In the late 1950s, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a "Forward Policy" to counter China's assertiveness in the border regions. This policy involved establishing military posts and infrastructure in disputed areas, which alarmed China and contributed to the escalation of tensions between the two countries.

4. Failure of Panchsheel: The Panchsheel Agreement, signed between India and China in 1954, was based on the five principles of peaceful coexistence (mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence). However, the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950 and the subsequent border disputes violated these principles, exposing the limitations of the Panchsheel Agreement in guiding bilateral relations.

5. Military and Diplomatic Clashes: Several military and diplomatic confrontations took place between India and China in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The most notable incidents include the 1959 Longju clash, where Chinese troops opened fire on Indian posts, and the 1960 Kongka Pass incident, where Indian troops were ambushed by Chinese forces. These incidents further strained relations between the two countries.

The culmination of these factors led to the Sino-Indian War of 1962, where India faced a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Chinese military. The war exposed India's unpreparedness and inadequate defense capabilities, leading to a re-evaluation of its foreign policy and defense strategies. The war also significantly damaged the trust between India and China, casting a long shadow over their bilateral relations for decades to come.

In conclusion, the initial high note of India-China relations after Indian independence was marred by a series of disputes and clashes, culminating in the bitter experience of the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The unresolved border issues, the Tibet question, and the failure of diplomatic initiatives like the Panchsheel Agreement all contributed to the deterioration of the relationship between the two countries.

(c) “The Reorganisation of the states on the basis of language was a major aspect of national consolidation and integration. comment.       (10 Marks)

The reorganization of states in India on the basis of language was a significant step towards national consolidation and integration. It not only addressed the aspirations of various linguistic groups in the country but also contributed to the strengthening of the Indian federation. The process of reorganization started after India gained independence in 1947 and continued through the 1950s and 1960s.

(i) Before independence, the provinces in British India were organized mainly on the basis of administrative convenience, without much regard for linguistic or cultural affinities. However, during the freedom struggle, the demand for linguistic provinces gained momentum, as it was seen as a means to preserve and promote the rich linguistic and cultural diversity of the country. The Indian National Congress, which led the independence movement, also supported the idea of linguistic states.

(ii) After independence, the Constituent Assembly, while framing the Constitution of India, decided to set up a States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) to look into the question of reorganizing states on a linguistic basis. The SRC, headed by Justice Fazl Ali, submitted its report in 1955, recommending the reorganization of states based on language. Subsequently, the Indian Parliament passed the States Reorganisation Act in 1956, which led to the creation of 14 states and six Union Territories.

The reorganization of states on the basis of language had several positive implications for national consolidation and integration:

1. Recognition of linguistic diversity: The reorganization acknowledged and recognized the linguistic diversity of the country, which was vital for the process of nation-building. It ensured that each linguistic group had its own state, where its language would be the official language, and thus, would receive due recognition and protection.

2. Administrative efficiency: The reorganization of states on linguistic lines made administration more efficient, as it enabled the state governments to function in the language of the majority of the population. This facilitated better communication and understanding between the government and the people, leading to more effective implementation of policies and programs.

3. Political stability: The creation of linguistic states helped in reducing inter-regional conflicts and tensions, as each linguistic group had its own state, where its interests were looked after. This also allowed for a more equitable distribution of resources and development opportunities among different regions, contributing to overall political stability.

4. Promotion of regional identity and culture: The formation of linguistic states enabled the promotion of regional languages, literature, and culture. This encouraged a sense of pride and belonging among the people of the state, strengthening national integration.

5. Strengthening of federalism: The reorganization of states on linguistic lines was an important step in strengthening the federal structure of India, by ensuring that the states had a distinct identity and autonomy within the framework of the Indian Union. This, in turn, contributed to the unity and integrity of the country.

However, it is important to note that the reorganization of states on linguistic lines also had some negative consequences. It sometimes led to the creation of states that were not economically viable, and in some cases, it also resulted in inter-state disputes over issues like sharing of river waters and demarcation of boundaries. Moreover, the process of linguistic reorganization did not address the aspirations of all linguistic groups, leading to demands for further reorganization in later years.

In conclusion, the reorganization of states on the basis of language was a crucial aspect of national consolidation and integration in post-independence India. It helped in addressing the aspirations of various linguistic groups, promoting regional identity and culture, ensuring administrative efficiency, and strengthening the federal structure of the country. Despite some negative consequences, the overall impact of the linguistic reorganization was positive, contributing to the unity and integrity of India as a nation.