UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: Anthropology Paper 2 (Section- B) | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Q.5. Write notes on the following in about 150 words each: (10 x 5 = 50)

(a) Urbanization and tribal institutions    (10 Marks)

Urbanization refers to the process by which a growing proportion of a society's population starts living in cities and towns, leading to the transformation of rural areas into urban centers. This process has significant implications for the social, economic, and cultural life of people, including the functioning of tribal institutions.
Tribal institutions are an integral part of the social fabric of tribal communities, providing a sense of identity, social cohesion, and support. These institutions include traditional governance structures (like village councils), kinship networks, religious and cultural practices, and traditional livelihood systems. However, the rapid pace of urbanization has posed several challenges to the functioning and relevance of tribal institutions.
(i) Firstly, urbanization leads to the migration of tribal people to cities in search of better employment opportunities, education, and healthcare facilities. This migration results in the disintegration of traditional kinship networks, which were the primary source of social support and security for tribal communities. The weakening of these networks leads to the loss of collective decision-making processes, making it difficult to preserve and promote community interests.
(ii) Secondly, urban environments often expose tribal people to new social, cultural, and economic influences, which can alter their traditional customs, beliefs, and practices. For example, the increased exposure to mainstream education might lead to the erosion of indigenous knowledge systems, languages, and cultural practices.
(iii) Thirdly, urbanization can lead to the marginalization and discrimination of tribal communities in urban spaces. Due to their distinct cultural identity and the lack of social capital, tribal people may face difficulties in accessing essential urban services like housing, healthcare, and education. This may further weaken their traditional institutions, as they struggle to maintain their relevance in an urban context.
Despite these challenges, some tribal institutions have shown resilience and adaptability in the face of urbanization. For instance, the Gond tribe in Central India has managed to preserve its cultural identity and practices by forming a Gond Mahasabha, which acts as a platform for the community to come together, celebrate their festivals, and discuss community issues. Similarly, the Khasi tribe in North-East India has managed to adapt their traditional governance system to the urban context by establishing Dorbar Shnongs (local councils) in urban areas.
In conclusion, urbanization has undoubtedly posed challenges to the functioning of tribal institutions, leading to the erosion of their traditional social, cultural, and economic practices. However, some tribal communities have shown resilience and adaptability in preserving and promoting their identity in urban spaces. To ensure the continued relevance of tribal institutions in an urban context, it is essential to promote inclusive urban policies that recognize and value the uniqueness of these communities and their institutions. 

(b) Ethnic media and social awareness    (10 Marks)

Ethnic media plays a crucial role in promoting social awareness among various ethnic groups and communities. It primarily refers to media outlets that cater to specific ethnic or linguistic groups, enabling them to preserve their culture, traditions, and languages by providing news, information, and entertainment in their native languages or dialects. In the context of UPSC Anthropology optionals, ethnic media presents significant examples that showcase the importance of communication and cultural preservation in diverse societies.
(i) One of the primary functions of ethnic media is to create a sense of identity and belonging among the members of the ethnic community. This is particularly important in multi-ethnic and multicultural societies, where minority groups may often feel marginalized and underrepresented in mainstream media. Ethnic media channels provide a platform for these communities to voice their concerns, express their opinions, and share their stories, thus fostering social awareness within and outside the community.
For instance, in India, various regional and linguistic newspapers, radio stations, and television channels cater to specific ethnic groups, such as Marathi, Bengali, Tamil, or Punjabi, among others. These media outlets not only promote cultural pride and preservation but also raise awareness about local issues, social problems, and political developments that may not receive adequate coverage in mainstream national media.
(ii) Another important aspect of ethnic media is its role in fostering cross-cultural understanding and tolerance. By providing insights into the customs, values, and traditions of different ethnic groups, ethnic media can help break stereotypes and foster a more inclusive and compassionate society. Moreover, ethnic media can also play a crucial role in advocating for the rights and welfare of marginalized communities, raising awareness about issues such as discrimination, racism, and social justice.
In conclusion, ethnic media is a critical element in promoting social awareness and fostering cultural understanding in diverse societies. By providing a platform for expression and communication for minority groups, it helps create a sense of identity and belonging, highlights local issues and concerns, and promotes cross-cultural understanding and tolerance. 

(c) Cultural diversity and multiculturalism    (10 Marks)

Cultural diversity and multiculturalism are significant aspects of human societies, and they are particularly relevant in the Indian Civil Services examination. Cultural diversity refers to the variety of cultural elements, such as customs, traditions, values, beliefs, languages, and practices, that exist within a particular society or across different societies. Multiculturalism, on the other hand, is a social and political ideology that promotes the acknowledgment, acceptance, and celebration of cultural diversity within a society.
(i) In India, cultural diversity is evident in the multitude of languages, religions, and ethnic groups present in the country. This diversity is a result of the historical amalgamation of indigenous cultures, as well as the influences of various invasions, migrations, and trade routes. The Indian Constitution recognizes this diversity by providing for the protection of minority rights, linguistic rights, and cultural and educational rights.
(ii) Multiculturalism in India can be seen in the pluralistic and inclusive nature of its society, where people from different cultural backgrounds coexist and interact with each other. This is exemplified in the various festivals celebrated across the country, such as Diwali, Eid, and Christmas, which are enjoyed by people of all faiths. Moreover, the Indian government has taken various measures to promote multiculturalism, such as the establishment of institutions like the National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (NCPUL) and the Maulana Azad National Academy for Skills (MANAS).
However, challenges to multiculturalism exist in the form of communal tensions, social discrimination, and linguistic disputes. For instance, the Assam language movement or the anti-Hindi agitations in Tamil Nadu are examples of such challenges. It is crucial for the state and the society to address these challenges and uphold the values of multiculturalism and cultural diversity to maintain social harmony and foster a sense of national integration.
In conclusion, cultural diversity and multiculturalism are integral aspects of human societies, and understanding them is essential. India, with its rich cultural heritage and pluralistic society, serves as a prime example of these concepts. However, addressing the challenges to multiculturalism and promoting a more inclusive society is vital for the sustenance of India's diverse cultural fabric. 

(d) Concept of tribe and Indian census    (10 Marks)

The concept of a tribe refers to a social group that shares a common ancestry, language, culture, and territory. They often have their own distinct political and economic systems, social organization, and religious beliefs. Tribes are typically characterized by their self-sufficiency, close-knit communities, and strong ties to their land and natural resources. In India, tribes are referred to as Adivasis, which means original inhabitants, and they make up around 8.6% of the country's population.
(i) The Indian Census plays a crucial role in understanding the tribal population in the country. It provides data on the demographic, social, and economic aspects of the tribal population. The census has been collecting information on tribes since 1872, and the latest census, conducted in 2011, recognized more than 700 Scheduled Tribes in India. Scheduled Tribes are those that are recognized by the Constitution of India for their distinct identity and socio-economic status, and they are entitled to special protection and developmental assistance from the government.
(ii) Anthropologists have used the Indian Census data to study various aspects of tribal life, such as their population size, growth rate, literacy levels, occupational structure, and social customs. This information is essential for policymakers and administrators to design and implement effective programs for the welfare and development of tribal communities.
However, there are some limitations to using the census data for understanding tribes in India. First, the definition of a tribe is not consistent across different census years and may not accurately capture the unique features of each tribal community. Second, there is a possibility of underreporting or misreporting of tribal identity due to social stigma or fear of discrimination. Third, the census data may not fully represent the cultural diversity and complexity of tribal societies, as it mainly focuses on demographic and economic indicators.
Despite these limitations, the Indian Census remains an invaluable source of information on tribes in India. Some examples of tribes in India include the Gonds of Central India, the Santhals of Eastern India, and the Bhils of Western India, each with their unique cultural practices and identities. By studying these tribes, anthropologists can develop a deeper understanding of their social structure, kinship systems, and religious beliefs, thus contributing to the broader understanding of human diversity and cultural evolution. 

(e) Politics of recognition and deprivation    (10 Marks)

The politics of recognition and deprivation refer to the sociopolitical processes that determine the acknowledgment and allocation of rights, resources, and representation to various social groups. These processes play a crucial role in shaping the social, economic, and cultural life of a society, and are intimately linked to the broader issues of identity, power, and justice. In the context of the UPSC Anthropology optional, this theme can be analyzed through the lenses of ethnicity, caste, class, gender, and other axes of social differentiation.
(i) Recognition and deprivation are interrelated in the sense that the failure to acknowledge the distinct identity, culture, and rights of certain social groups often results in their marginalization and deprivation. For example, the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India have faced historical discrimination and exclusion, leading to their social, economic, and political disadvantage. In response, the policy of reservations in education, employment, and political representation was introduced as a means of affirmative action to counter this systematic deprivation.
(ii) Similarly, the politics of recognition can also be seen in the context of the demands for separate statehood by various ethnic and linguistic groups in India. For instance, the formation of Telangana as a separate state in 2014 was a result of the long-standing demand for recognition of the distinct cultural and economic identity of the region, which had been historically deprived of resources and development opportunities.
Moreover, the politics of gender recognition and deprivation also play a significant role in shaping the social fabric of a society. The patriarchal norms and values often result in the marginalization and discrimination of women and other gender minorities, leading to their deprivation in various spheres of life. In response, movements such as feminism and LGBTQ+ activism have emerged, advocating for the recognition of their rights and equal status in society.
In conclusion, the politics of recognition and deprivation are essential for understanding the complex interplay of identity, power, and justice in any society. As an aspiring civil servant, it is necessary to be aware of these processes and their implications for policymaking and governance, in order to promote inclusive and equitable development for all social groups. 

Q.6. Answer the following:

The Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006, also known as the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, was enacted by the Government of India to address historical injustices faced by the tribal people and other traditional forest dwellers in the country. The Act aimed to recognize and vest forest rights and occupation in forest land to these communities, who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded.
Impact on Livelihood:
1. Access to resources: The FRA has significantly impacted the livelihood of tribal people by giving them legal rights to access forest resources for their sustenance and livelihood. This includes rights to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce, such as fruits, nuts, seeds, and medicinal plants, that were traditionally collected by them.
2. Landownership and cultivation: The Act also recognizes the rights of tribal people to own and cultivate land in the forest areas that they have traditionally inhabited. This has allowed many tribal families to engage in agriculture and horticulture activities, leading to improved food security and income generation.
3. Community rights: The FRA also recognizes the rights of communities to protect, regenerate, and manage their community forest resources. This has led to increased participation of tribal people in forest management, giving them more control over their resources and helping them to sustain their traditional livelihoods.
4. Employment opportunities: The recognition of rights under the FRA has also created new employment opportunities for tribal people. For example, the management of minor forest produce has led to the establishment of cooperatives and self-help groups, providing additional sources of income for the tribal communities.
Impact on Culture:
1. Cultural identity: The FRA has helped in strengthening the cultural identity of tribal people by recognizing their rights over their ancestral lands and resources. This recognition has allowed tribal communities to preserve their traditional practices, customs, and knowledge systems related to the forest ecosystem.
2. Sacred groves and cultural sites: The Act also recognizes the rights of tribal people to protect their sacred groves, burial grounds, and other culturally significant sites within the forest. This has helped in the preservation of the cultural heritage of tribal communities and has reinforced their cultural identity.
3. Community participation: The FRA emphasizes community participation in decision-making and management of forest resources. This has led to the revival of traditional institutions and governance systems in tribal communities, thus strengthening their cultural practices and values.
4. Resilience against displacement: The Act has provided legal protection to tribal people against forced displacement from their traditional forest lands. This has helped in preserving their cultural continuity and reducing the risk of cultural erosion that often accompanies displacement and migration.
Examples:
1. The Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha, India, successfully used the provisions of the FRA to assert their rights over the Niyamgiri hills, which are sacred to them and a crucial part of their livelihood. This helped them prevent a mining project that threatened their cultural and livelihood rights.
2. The Soliga tribe in Karnataka used their rights under the FRA to manage and conserve their forest resources, leading to the revival of their traditional agroforestry system and the improvement of their livelihoods.
In conclusion, the Forest Rights Act (2006) has had a significant impact on the livelihood and culture of tribal people in India by legally recognizing their rights over forest resources and lands. It has enabled tribal communities to preserve their traditional practices, protect their cultural heritage, and improve their livelihoods by allowing them greater access to and control over forest resources. 

(b) Examine the factors responsible for malnutrition in tribal India and suggest interventions required to overcome the problem.    (15 Marks)

Malnutrition is a significant issue faced by tribal populations in India, affecting the health and well-being of millions of individuals. The factors responsible for malnutrition in tribal India can be broadly categorized into social, economic, environmental, and political factors.
1. Social factors:
(a) Poverty: Most tribal communities in India live in abject poverty, which hampers their access to nutritious food, sanitation, and healthcare services. These factors contribute to a high prevalence of malnutrition among tribal children and women.
(b) Cultural beliefs and practices: Some tribal communities follow food taboos and dietary practices that restrict their intake of nutritious foods. For instance, in certain tribes, pregnant women are discouraged from consuming certain protein-rich foods, leading to maternal malnutrition.
2. Economic factors:
(a) Limited access to markets: Due to their remote locations, many tribal communities have limited access to markets, leading to a lack of availability of diverse and nutritious food items.
(b) Unemployment and underemployment: The majority of tribal populations depend on agriculture, forest products, and daily wage labor for their livelihoods. The lack of stable and well-paying jobs forces many tribal people to migrate, which disrupts their food consumption patterns and negatively impacts their nutritional status.
3. Environmental factors:
(a) Land degradation and deforestation: Tribal populations rely on forests for food, fuel, and other resources. However, deforestation and land degradation have led to a decline in the availability of forest resources, which has further exacerbated food insecurity and malnutrition among tribal populations.
(b) Climate change: Climate change-induced extreme weather events such as floods and droughts have negatively impacted agricultural production, which has led to food shortages and increased food prices, making it difficult for tribal communities to access nutritious food.
4. Political factors:
Inefficient implementation of government schemes: Although the government of India has introduced various schemes aimed at improving the nutritional status of vulnerable populations, their implementation in tribal areas has been largely inefficient. This is due to a lack of coordination between various departments, inadequate infrastructure, and corruption.
Interventions required to overcome the problem of malnutrition in tribal India:
1. Enhance the implementation of government nutrition programs: The government should ensure that nutrition programs such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme are effectively implemented in tribal areas.
2. Improve access to healthcare services: Providing accessible and affordable healthcare services to tribal populations is essential for addressing malnutrition. This includes setting up primary health centers in tribal areas, ensuring an adequate supply of medicines, and training community health workers.
3. Promote awareness and education: Awareness campaigns on the importance of nutrition, hygiene, and sanitation should be conducted in tribal areas. Moreover, efforts should be made to promote education, particularly among women, as it has a direct impact on the nutritional status of children.
4. Encourage sustainable agriculture and forest management practices: Tribal communities should be encouraged to adopt sustainable agricultural practices that enhance food security and preserve the environment. Additionally, community-based forest management practices should be promoted to ensure the sustainable use of forest resources.
5. Enhance livelihood opportunities: The government should focus on providing skill development and vocational training to tribal populations, enabling them to secure stable and well-paying jobs. This would help improve their purchasing power and access to nutritious food.
6. Addressing the issue of land rights: Ensuring land rights for tribal populations can provide them with a sense of security and encourage them to invest in agriculture and other income-generating activities.
In conclusion, addressing the issue of malnutrition in tribal India requires a multi-faceted approach that takes into account the social, economic, environmental, and political factors that contribute to the problem. By implementing targeted interventions and ensuring the effective implementation of government schemes, it is possible to improve the nutritional status of tribal populations in India. 

(c) Delineate the factors influencing fertility in Indian population.    (15 Marks)

Ramapithecus, an extinct hominid genus, was first discovered in the 1930s from the Siwalik Hills of India and later in Pakistan and East Africa. Fossil remains of Ramapithecus mainly include jawbones and teeth, which exhibit both ape-like and human-like characteristics. Based on these features, Ramapithecus was initially believed to be a direct ancestor of modern humans. However, further research and discoveries have now placed Ramapithecus as an early member of the great ape family, rather than a direct human ancestor.
Morphological Features:
1. Dental morphology: Ramapithecus had a relatively small dental arcade with a U-shaped, parabolic palate, more similar to humans than to the V-shaped palate of apes. The canine teeth were smaller and less projecting compared to those of apes, and the premolars had a more human-like bicuspid shape. The molars were also more similar to humans, with a Y-5 cusp pattern, which is a characteristic feature of hominids.
2. Jaw structure: The jawbone of Ramapithecus was robust and had a more human-like, rectangular shape, compared to the triangular shape seen in apes. The presence of a bony buttress, called the Simian shelf, was also indicative of its relation to the hominid lineage.
3. Size and locomotion: Ramapithecus was smaller in size compared to modern great apes, with an estimated body weight of around 30-50 kg. Although postcranial remains are scarce, it is believed that Ramapithecus was more terrestrial than arboreal, based on dental wear patterns and the robusticity of the jaw.
Phylogenetic Position:
Initially, Ramapithecus was considered to be a direct ancestor of Homo sapiens due to its morphological features that closely resembled early hominids. However, with the discovery of new fossil evidence and advancements in molecular biology, the phylogenetic position of Ramapithecus has been revised.
1. Relationship with Sivapithecus: Further discoveries of fossil remains revealed that Ramapithecus shares many similarities with another extinct hominid genus, Sivapithecus. Both genera lived during the same time period (approximately 12.5 to 8.5 million years ago) and are found in the same geographical regions. Some researchers now classify Ramapithecus as a junior synonym of Sivapithecus, suggesting that they represent the same species or closely related species.
2. Great ape lineage: Molecular studies and more comprehensive analysis of the fossil record have shown that Ramapithecus is more closely related to the great ape lineage than to the human lineage. It is now considered to be an early member of the orangutan lineage (Ponginae) rather than an early hominid.
In conclusion, Ramapithecus, with its unique combination of ape-like and human-like features, has played an important role in understanding the evolutionary relationships among primates. Although it is no longer considered a direct human ancestor, the study of Ramapithecus has provided valuable insights into the morphological adaptations and phylogenetic relationships among early hominids and great apes. 

Q.7. Answer the following:

The successive Land Acquisition Acts have had a significant impact on the tribal social organization in India. These acts have often led to the disruption of traditional tribal communities, their culture, livelihood, and social networks. Here, we will discuss some of the ways in which these acts have impacted tribal social organization.
1. Land acquisition acts have facilitated the acquisition of tribal lands for various development projects such as dams, mining, and industrialization. This has led to the displacement of a large number of tribal communities from their ancestral lands, causing them to lose their traditional means of livelihood, which is primarily based on agriculture, forest produce, and livestock rearing. For example, the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada river led to the displacement of around 200,000 people, a majority of whom were tribals.
2. Fragmentation of social networks: The displacement of tribes from their ancestral lands has also led to the fragmentation of their social networks. Tribal communities have strong kinship ties and their social organization is often based on the village as the primary unit. The scattering of tribal populations has disrupted their social cohesion and weakened their kinship networks, thereby impacting their overall social organization.
3. Cultural erosion: The loss of ancestral lands has also led to the erosion of traditional tribal culture, as the land is not only a source of livelihood but also a repository of their customs, beliefs, and rituals. The displacement has resulted in the detachment of tribes from their cultural roots, leading to the gradual disappearance of their unique traditions, languages, and practices.
4. Marginalization and vulnerability: The tribal communities displaced by land acquisition have often been resettled in unfamiliar environments with inadequate facilities and resources, leading to their further marginalization. They face numerous challenges in adapting to their new surroundings, such as discrimination, lack of access to basic amenities, and limited opportunities for employment and education. This has made them more vulnerable to exploitation and social exclusion.
5. Conflicts and social unrest: The Land Acquisition Acts have also been a source of conflicts and social unrest among tribal communities. In many cases, tribes have protested against the acquisition of their lands, leading to conflicts with the government and other stakeholders. For example, the ongoing struggle of the Dongria Kondh tribe against the mining project in the Niyamgiri hills in Odisha is an example of such conflicts.
In conclusion, the successive Land Acquisition Acts have had a profound impact on the tribal social organization in India. These acts have led to the displacement of tribes from their ancestral lands, causing a loss of livelihood, fragmentation of social networks, cultural erosion, marginalization, and conflicts. It is essential to address these issues by ensuring that the rights and interests of tribal communities are protected and that they are adequately compensated and rehabilitated in the process of land acquisition and development. 

(b) Discuss the problems involved in rehabilitation and resettlement of tribals displaced due to development projects in India.    (15 Marks)

Rehabilitation and resettlement of tribals displaced due to development projects in India is a complex and challenging process. The problems involved in this process can be categorized into social, economic, political, cultural, and environmental issues.
1. Social issues:
(a) Loss of social networks: Displacement leads to the breaking of social networks and support systems that have been built over generations. This makes it difficult for tribals to adapt to the new environment, resulting in social isolation and stress.
(b) Discrimination and marginalization: Often, tribals are resettled in areas where they are in the minority, leading to discrimination and marginalization. They may be denied access to resources and opportunities, as well as face social exclusion due to their indigenous identity.
2. Economic issues:
(a) Loss of livelihood: Displacement often leads to loss of traditional livelihood sources like agriculture, fishing, and forest products collection. Tribals often lack the skills and resources to adapt to new forms of employment in the areas they are resettled in.
(b) Inadequate compensation: Compensation provided to the displaced tribals is often insufficient to restore their pre-displacement living standards. This leads to impoverishment and dependency on government aid, affecting their overall well-being.
3. Political issues:
(a) Lack of participation: Tribals are often not consulted in the planning and implementation of development projects. This leads to a lack of ownership and participation in the rehabilitation and resettlement process, resulting in inadequate and inappropriate measures being taken.
(b) Land alienation: Land is often taken away from tribals without proper legal procedures or documentation, resulting in loss of land rights and displacement. This leads to further marginalization and disempowerment of the tribal communities.
4. Cultural issues:
(a) Loss of cultural identity: Displacement often leads to the loss of cultural identity and traditional practices among tribals. They may be forced to assimilate into the dominant culture in the resettlement areas, which can lead to cultural disintegration and loss of self-esteem.
(b) Disruption of traditional knowledge systems: Traditional knowledge systems, including knowledge of agriculture, natural resource management, and health practices, are lost during displacement. This knowledge is often not passed on to future generations, leading to the erosion of cultural heritage.
5. Environmental issues:
(a) Degradation of natural resources: Development projects often cause environmental degradation, affecting the natural resources that tribals rely on for their livelihood. Deforestation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity can have long-term consequences on the ecosystem and the livelihoods of the displaced tribals.
(b) Loss of access to common property resources: Common property resources like forests, water bodies, and grazing lands are often taken over for development projects. This restricts access to these resources for the tribals, affecting their livelihood and sustenance.
Examples:
(i) The Sardar Sarovar Dam project in Gujarat led to the displacement of thousands of tribals, who faced issues like inadequate compensation, loss of livelihood, and marginalization.
(ii) The Polavaram project in Andhra Pradesh has displaced a large number of tribals from their ancestral lands, resulting in loss of cultural identity and traditional knowledge systems.
In conclusion, rehabilitation and resettlement of tribals displaced due to development projects in India face numerous challenges. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive and participatory approach that respects the rights, culture, and well-being of the tribal communities while ensuring sustainable development. 

(c) Discuss the interventions made by the Non-Governmental Organizations for empowering tribal women.    (15 Marks)

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play a significant role in empowering tribal women by implementing various interventions focusing on education, health, economic independence, skill development, and social awareness. These interventions aim to uplift the socio-economic status of tribal women and help them break the cycle of poverty, illiteracy, and marginalization. Here are some examples of interventions made by NGOs for empowering tribal women:
1. Education and Literacy: Education is the primary tool for empowering tribal women, as it helps them gain knowledge, awareness, and the ability to make informed decisions. NGOs like Eklavya Foundation, Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS), and Pratham focus on providing quality education to tribal girls, setting up residential schools, and spreading awareness about the importance of education among tribal communities.
2. Health and Nutrition: Tribal women often suffer from poor health and nutrition due to limited access to healthcare facilities and a lack of awareness about health issues. NGOs like SEWA Rural (Society for Education, Welfare, and Action – Rural) and Piramal Swasthya focus on providing primary healthcare services, organizing health camps, promoting maternal and child health, and creating awareness about family planning and reproductive health.
3. Economic Empowerment: Economic independence is crucial for empowering tribal women, as it enables them to break free from poverty and improve their social status. NGOs like Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA), Professional Assistance for Development Action (PRADAN), and Kudumbashree work on promoting skill development, entrepreneurship, and self-help groups among tribal women.
4. Legal Awareness and Rights: Tribal women are often unaware of their legal rights and entitlements, which makes them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. NGOs like the Center for Social Justice, the Lawyers Collective, and the Human Rights Law Network focus on providing legal aid to tribal women, raising awareness about their rights, and advocating for policy changes to protect their interests.
5. Social Awareness and Gender Equality: NGOs like Breakthrough and Jagori work on promoting gender equality, raising awareness about gender-based violence, and empowering tribal women to challenge traditional gender norms. They use various tools like street plays, workshops, and campaigns to create awareness about women's rights and gender equality.
6. Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods: Many tribal women depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. NGOs like Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) and Vanashakti work on involving tribal women in environmental conservation efforts, promoting sustainable livelihood options, and ensuring access to forest resources.
In conclusion, NGOs play a vital role in empowering tribal women through targeted interventions that address their specific needs and challenges. By focusing on education, health, economic independence, legal awareness, and social equality, NGOs help tribal women overcome the barriers they face and work towards a better future for themselves and their communities. 

Q.8. Answer the following:

Structural transformation in the economy refers to the process of shifting from an agrarian-based economy to an industrial and service-based economy. This change has significant implications for traditional social relationships in agrarian societies, as it alters the way people interact, organize, and perceive their social roles.

This phenomenon can be examined by looking at the following aspects:
1. Change in the caste system: With the growth of industries and service sectors, caste-based occupations are becoming less relevant. People from traditionally disadvantaged castes are finding opportunities to work in non-traditional occupations, allowing them to break free from the restrictions imposed by the caste system. For example, the traditional caste hierarchy is being challenged by Dalits (untouchables) working in high-paying jobs in multinational corporations.
2. Rural-urban migration: As industries and services expand, there is a rise in rural-urban migration, leading to a weakening of the traditional joint family system. In urban areas, there is a greater emphasis on individualism and nuclear families, which leads to a change in the relationships between family members. For example, the dependence on the extended family for support and decision-making decreases, with individuals making more independent choices.
3. Gender roles: With increasing opportunities for women in the workforce, traditional gender roles are being challenged. Women are no longer confined to their roles as caretakers and subsistence farmers and are gaining financial independence. This is leading to a change in their social status and decision-making power within the family, as well as a shift in the expectations surrounding marriage and family life.
4. Influence of mass media and technology: The exposure to mass media and technology has led to a rapid diffusion of new ideas and values, leading to a change in traditional social relationships. For example, the concept of dating and love marriages is becoming more acceptable in rural areas as people are exposed to these ideas through television, movies, and social media.

5. Education: Increased access to education has led to a change in values and aspirations among the younger generation in agrarian societies. Education provides opportunities for social mobility and encourages critical thinking, questioning, and challenging of traditional norms and values. For example, educated youth may question the caste system, gender roles, and the importance of family honor, leading to a change in social relationships.
6. Landlessness and fragmentation of land: The shift from an agrarian economy to an industrial one has led to a decrease in the importance of land as a source of wealth and power. Landlessness and fragmentation of land have led to a decline in the influence of traditional landowners and the rise of new social groups, such as industrialists and entrepreneurs.
In conclusion, the structural transformation in the economy has significant implications for traditional social relationships in agrarian societies. These changes can be observed in the caste system, rural-urban migration, gender roles, influence of mass media and technology, education, and landownership patterns. As societies continue to evolve, it is essential for anthropologists to understand and analyze these changes to better comprehend the complex dynamics of social relationships in contemporary times.

(b) Delineate the constitutional safeguard for religious minorities in India.    (15 Marks)

Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) were introduced in India through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 to bring about decentralization and greater participation of people in rural governance. The PRIs have played a significant role in transforming the traditional power hierarchy in rural India, making governance more inclusive and equitable. Some ways in which PRIs have contributed to this transformation include:
1. Decentralization of power: The traditional power hierarchy in rural India was dominated by upper caste and economically influential individuals who controlled most of the decision-making processes. PRIs have decentralized power by giving more authority and responsibilities to local self-governance institutions like Gram Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis, and Zila Parishads. This has allowed for better representation of marginalized and vulnerable groups in the decision-making process.
2. Reservation for marginalized groups: The PRIs have a reservation system for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women, ensuring their representation in local governance. This has given these historically marginalized groups a platform to voice their concerns and participate in the decision-making process. For example, in the state of Rajasthan, the reservation policy in Panchayat elections has led to more than 40% of Sarpanches (village heads) being women.
3. Empowerment of women: The 33% reservation for women in PRIs has resulted in a significant increase in their participation in local governance. This has not only empowered them but also challenged the traditional patriarchal norms that have long suppressed their voices. Women leaders in PRIs have been instrumental in addressing issues like domestic violence, child marriage, and gender discrimination, which were often ignored in the traditional power hierarchy.
4. Social audits and transparency: The PRIs have introduced social audits, which involve the participation of local people in monitoring and evaluating government programs and schemes. This has increased transparency and accountability in the functioning of local governance, challenging the traditional power hierarchy where decisions were often taken behind closed doors.
5. Conflict resolution and social justice: The PRIs have been successful in resolving local conflicts and disputes, which were earlier often settled by traditional power holders like caste leaders or village headmen. The Gram Panchayats, as a part of PRIs, have played a crucial role in settling disputes related to land, water resources, and other community issues in a just and equitable manner.
However, the transformation of the traditional power hierarchy through PRIs is not without its challenges. Factors like political interference, lack of financial autonomy, and limited capacity building have hindered the PRIs' effectiveness in some areas. Moreover, deeply ingrained social norms and prejudices may still influence decision-making, even within PRIs.
In conclusion, the Panchayati Raj Institutions have played a crucial role in transforming the traditional power hierarchy in rural India. They have made governance more participatory, inclusive, and equitable by ensuring representation of marginalized groups, empowering women, promoting transparency, and delivering social justice. To further strengthen the PRIs, it is essential to address the existing challenges and enhance their capacities to effectively govern and bring about positive change in rural communities. 

(c) Identify the causes of tribal unrest with special reference to North-East India.    (15 Marks)

Tribal unrest in North-East India can be attributed to several factors, which are often interconnected. Some of the major causes include:
1. Political factors: The demand for autonomy and the desire for separate statehood have been significant factors contributing to tribal unrest in the region. For example, the Naga insurgency led by the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) has its roots in the demand for a separate Naga state.
2. Economic factors: The lack of economic development, inadequate infrastructure, and limited employment opportunities have led to a sense of deprivation and frustration among the tribal population. This has resulted in the emergence of various militant groups seeking a better share of resources and development.
3. Land and resource issues: The tribal communities in North-East India have a strong attachment to their land and forests, which are integral to their culture and livelihood. However, encroachment, deforestation, and land alienation have led to conflicts between the tribal people and non-tribal settlers or authorities. For example, the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) emerged partly due to the Assamese's resentment against perceived exploitation of their resources by the central government and outsiders.
4. Ethnicity and identity: North-East India is home to over 200 ethnic groups, each with its distinct language, culture, and identity. The struggle for preserving these distinct ethnic identities has often led to inter-tribal and intra-tribal conflicts. For instance, the Bodo movement in Assam initially demanded a separate state to protect their cultural and linguistic identity.
5. Social factors: Inter-community tensions and social discrimination have also contributed to tribal unrest. For instance, the Kuki-Naga and Karbi-Dimasa conflicts in Manipur and Assam, respectively, are examples of inter-tribal conflicts fueled by social and cultural differences.
6. Migration and demographic changes: Influx of migrants from Bangladesh and other neighboring countries has led to significant demographic changes in the region, resulting in increasing competition for scarce resources and further aggravating ethnic tensions.
7. Role of external forces: The porous borders of North-East India with countries like China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh make it vulnerable to external interference. These neighboring countries are often accused of providing shelter and support to various insurgent groups operating in the region, leading to increased unrest.
8. Ineffective governance: The inability of the central and state governments to address the grievances of the tribal people and their failure to ensure inclusive development has further intensified the feeling of alienation among the tribal communities.
In conclusion, tribal unrest in North-East India is a complex issue with multiple causes, including political, economic, social, and cultural factors. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive and inclusive approach that recognizes the unique challenges faced by the region and ensures the participation of various stakeholders in the development process.