Historical antecedents of Psychology and trends in the 21st centrury | Psychology for UPSC Optional (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Despite the initial dominance of male psychologists, the field of psychology has witnessed a growing contribution from women. Here are a few notable instances:

• In 1968, Mary Jean Wright broke barriers by becoming the first female president of the Canadian Psychological Association.
• Continuing this trend, Virginia Douglas assumed the position of the second female president of the Canadian Psychological Association in 1970.
• In 1972, the Underground Symposium took place during the Canadian Psychological Association Convention. This independent research symposium was organized by a group of six graduate students and non-tenured faculty, including Sandra Pyke and Esther Greenglass. The symposium aimed to showcase the psychology of women and was born out of their rejection by the Program Committee for individual papers and a symposium.
• The Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women was established in 1976, serving as a valuable resource for promoting women's research in Canada.
• Janet Stoppard played a significant role in 1987 as she led the Women and Mental Health Committee of the Canadian Mental Health Association.

Throughout the evolution of psychology, the fundamental questions that psychologists tackle have remained steadfast, despite significant changes in the field. In this chapter and subsequent chapters, we will delve into some of these questions:

• Nature versus nurture: This question pertains to the relative influence of genetics and environment on individual behavior and the variations observed among people. Most scientists now recognize that both genes and environment play vital roles in shaping human behavior. However, understanding the intricate interplay between nature (biological makeup) and nurture (life experiences) still requires further exploration (Harris, 1998; Pinker, 2002). We will frequently refer to the concept of heritability, which measures the extent to which observed differences in characteristics (e.g., height, intelligence, optimism) can be attributed to genetics. For instance, intelligence has a high heritability of approximately 0.85, while extraversion has a heritability of around 0.50. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that nature and nurture interact in complex ways, making the simplistic "nature versus nurture" dichotomy difficult to resolve.
• Free will versus determinism: This question centers on the degree to which individuals possess control over their actions. Are our behaviors solely determined by external forces beyond our control, or do we possess the ability to choose our actions? Most individuals prefer to believe in free will, the notion that we have the freedom to act as we desire. This belief forms the basis of our legal system, where individuals are held accountable for their actions due to the assumption that they possess the capacity to make choices. However, recent research, as discussed later in this section, suggests that our control over our behavior may be less extensive than commonly believed (Wegner, 2002).
• Accuracy versus inaccuracy: This question explores the extent to which humans excel at processing information. While humans are generally adept at comprehending and making reasonable decisions about the world around them (Fiske, 2003), we are far from perfect. Our thinking can be influenced by biases, motivations, and emotions, compromising our judgment. Desires for material wealth or positive self-perception, as well as emotional reactions to events, can distort our reasoning. Numerous studies have examined decision-making processes in critical situations such as natural disasters or instances of human error and criminal actions, including cases like the Tylenol poisoning, the Maple Leaf meats listeriosis outbreak, the SARS epidemic, or the Lac-Mégantic train derailment (Figure).

• Conscious versus unconscious processing: This question investigates the degree to which we are aware of our actions and their underlying causes versus the extent to which our behaviors are influenced by factors outside our conscious awareness. Numerous psychological theories, ranging from Freudian psychodynamic theories to contemporary research in cognitive psychology, posit that a significant portion of our behavior is determined by unconscious variables.
• Differences versus similarities: This question explores the balance between human similarities and differences. Are there fundamental psychological and personality distinctions between genders, such as men and women, or are the similarities more prevalent? Moreover, what about variations among individuals from different ethnicities and cultures? Are people across the globe generally alike, or do their backgrounds and environments shape them in distinct ways? These classic questions are addressed by personality psychologists, social psychologists, and cross-cultural psychologists.

Early Psychologists

• The ancient Greek philosophers Plato (428-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC) are among the earliest known psychologists. These philosophers posed questions that continue to intrigue psychologists today, exploring concepts such as the nature-nurture distinction and the existence of free will. Plato advocated for the innateness of certain types of knowledge, aligning with the nature side of the debate, while Aristotle leaned towards nurture, proposing that each child is born as a "blank slate" and acquires knowledge primarily through learning and experience.
• During the Renaissance, European philosophers persisted in examining these foundational questions. René Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher and scientist, also contemplated the issue of free will, defending its existence and postulating that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland (an idea that was later proven incorrect). Descartes also endorsed the idea of innate natural abilities. Furthermore, he made significant contributions to the understanding of the nervous system's role in muscular control through animal dissection. Descartes also explored the relationship between the mind (mental aspects of life) and the body (physical aspects of life), advocating for dualism, which posits that the mind and body are fundamentally distinct entities. Other European philosophers, including Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), also shared their perspectives on these matters. However, these philosophers faced a significant challenge as they had limited means to substantiate their claims. Conducting research on these questions was uncommon among philosophers at the time due to a lack of methodology and uncertainty about the possibility of objectively studying human experiences.

• However, the 19th century brought about significant changes with the emergence of the first two research psychologists: Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German psychologist who established a psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, and William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist who founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University. These developments marked a pivotal shift in the field of psychology.

Structuralism: Introspection and the Study of Subjective Experience

In his Leipzig laboratory, Wundt conducted research that revolved around the nature of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to deconstruct the fundamental elements of the mind and systematically classify our conscious experiences. This gave rise to the school of psychology known as structuralism, which aimed to identify the basic building blocks or structures of psychological experiences. Their objective was to develop a "periodic table" of sensations, similar to the recently established periodic table in chemistry. Structuralists employed a method called introspection to map out the elements of consciousness. Introspection involved requesting research participants to provide precise descriptions of their experiences while engaging in mental tasks such as perceiving colors, reading a page of text, or solving math problems. For example, a participant reading a book might describe seeing black and colored lines and curves against a white background. In other studies, structuralists utilized newly developed reaction time devices to systematically measure not only participants' thoughts but also the time it took for them to respond. Wundt's observations revealed that people took longer to report the specific sound they had just heard compared to simply acknowledging that they heard a sound. These investigations represented a significant milestone as researchers recognized the distinction between the sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus. The idea of utilizing reaction times to study mental processes has since become a fundamental aspect of cognitive psychology.

One of the most well-known figures among the structuralists was Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927). Titchener, a student of Wundt, migrated to the United States in the late 1800s and established a laboratory at Cornell University (Figure 1.4). Despite being rejected by McGill University in 1903, Titchener's contributions suggest he may have been ahead of his time, as the Montreal Neurological Institute, led by Brenda Milner, was not established until 1950. Through introspection, Titchener and his students claimed to have identified over 40,000 sensations related to vision, hearing, and taste. The structuralist approach was characterized by its rigor and scientific nature, marking a pivotal moment when psychology began to be viewed as a quantifiable science. However, the limitations of introspection also became apparent. Even highly trained participants often struggled to accurately report their subjective experiences. This led the structuralists to recognize the significance of unconscious processes, acknowledging that many important aspects of human psychology occur beyond conscious awareness, and that participants cannot always provide accurate reports of their experiences.

Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology

In contrast to Wundt's focus on understanding consciousness itself, William James and the functionalist school, including other scholars, aimed to comprehend why animals and humans possess their particular psychological characteristics (Hunt, 1993). James emphasized that one's thinking is ultimately relevant to one's behavior, as stated in his psychology textbook: "My thinking is first and last and always for the sake of my doing" (James, 1890). Influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, which proposed that physical characteristics evolve due to their usefulness or functionality, functionalists believed that this theory extended to psychological characteristics as well. They posited that, just as certain animals have developed strong muscles for running fast, the human brain must have adapted to serve specific functions in human experience, according to the functionalist perspective (Figure).

• Although functionalism as a distinct school of psychology no longer exists, its fundamental principles have been integrated into the field and continue to exert influence in various ways. The ideas put forth by functionalists have evolved into evolutionary psychology, a branch of psychology that applies Darwinian theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior (Dennett, 1995; Tooby & Cosmides, 1992). Evolutionary psychology embraces the functionalists' core assumption, which asserts that numerous psychological systems in humans, such as memory, emotion, and personality, serve essential adaptive functions. In the upcoming chapters, we will explore how evolutionary psychologists employ evolutionary theory to understand a wide range of behaviors, including romantic attraction, stereotypes, prejudice, and even the origins of certain psychological disorders. 
• A central concept in evolutionary psychology is fitness, which refers to the extent to which a specific characteristic enhances an organism's survival and reproduction compared to others lacking that characteristic. Characteristics that contribute to fitness are more likely to be inherited and persist across generations. For instance, it has been argued that the emotion of jealousy has endured in men because those who experience jealousy are more successful in protecting their mates and ensuring reproductive success (Buss, 2000). Despite its significance in psychological theorizing, evolutionary psychology faces limitations. One challenge is the difficulty of testing many of its predictions. Unlike physical evolution, where fossils provide evidence, psychological characteristics of our ancestors can only be inferred. Consequently, it is possible that post hoc explanations are constructed to account for observed data. However, the evolutionary approach remains important in psychology as it offers logical explanations for the presence of various psychological characteristics.
• Another well-known approach in psychology, familiar to the general public, is psychodynamic psychology, which was pioneered by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers. Psychodynamic psychology focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories in understanding human behavior. Freud developed his theories through extensive analysis of the patients he treated in his private clinical practice. According to Freud (Figure 1.6), many of the problems experienced by his patients, including anxiety, depression, and sexual dysfunction, were attributed to repressed memories of painful childhood experiences that were no longer consciously remembered.
• Freud's influence extended to other psychologists who embraced the psychodynamic approach, such as Carl Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler (1870-1937), Karen Horney (1855-1952), and Erik Erikson (1902-1994). These psychologists believed that by uncovering unconscious drives, particularly through in-depth exploration of early sexual experiences and current desires, it was possible to assist patients. This exploration took place through talk therapy and dream analysis, known as psychoanalysis. While the founders of psychodynamics primarily focused on clinical practice rather than empirical research, their ideas have had a significant impact on the field of psychology and our understanding of human behavior (Moore & Fine, 1995). Notably, the concepts of the unconscious, the influence of early childhood experiences, and the therapeutic process as a means of enhancing human lives all stem from the psychodynamic approach and remain central to psychology.

Behaviorism and the Question of Free Will

• In contrast to structuralism and functionalism, which focused on the study of the mind, the school of behaviorism emerged as a response to the challenges encountered when using introspection to understand behavior. Behaviorism is a psychological perspective that asserts the objective study of the mind is not possible, and therefore psychologists should restrict their focus to the study of observable behavior. Behaviorists argue that attempting to understand the inner workings of the mind is futile because behavior can be successfully predicted without knowledge of internal mental processes. Additionally, behaviorists believe it is possible to formulate laws of learning that can explain all behaviors. John B. Watson (1878-1958) is considered the founder of behaviorism and was influenced by the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist who discovered that dogs salivated in response to a tone that had been associated with the presentation of food.
• Building upon Pavlov's research, Watson and other behaviorists utilized these ideas to explain how environmental stimuli could elicit specific responses. For instance, Watson conducted studies involving a child named Little Albert, where the child was repeatedly exposed to fearful stimuli in the presence of neutral objects, leading to the development of fear responses towards those objects (Watson & Rayner, 1920; Beck, Levinson, & Irons, 2009). The behaviorist approach emphasized the association between stimuli and responses to explain behavior, as demonstrated in Little Albert's case, where the child associated the white rat with the loud noise, resulting in fear and crying.

• One of the most renowned figures in behaviorism was Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904 to 1990), who expanded upon the principles of behaviorism and popularized them among the general public. Skinner (Figure 1.7) applied the concepts of stimulus and response, along with the use of rewards or reinforcements, to train various animals, including pigeons. Furthermore, he utilized the fundamental principles of behaviorism to formulate theories on effective educational practices for children and the creation of peaceful and productive societies. Skinner even devised a method to study thoughts and emotions within the framework of behaviorism (Skinner, 1957, 1972).
• The behaviorists made significant contributions to the field of psychology by uncovering the principles of learning. Although their belief that thoughts and feelings couldn't be measured was ultimately proven incorrect, their ideas stimulated new perspectives and enhanced our understanding of the nature-nurture debate and the concept of free will. The principles of behaviorism remain fundamental to psychology and have been expanded upon to deepen our comprehension of the role of prior experiences in various psychological domains.

The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience

• The emergence of cognitive psychology in the 1960s was strongly influenced by advancements in computer technology during that era. This parallel between the brain and the computer, although imperfect, played a pivotal role in the development of a new psychological school called cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology explores mental processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and judgment, which align with the functions performed by computers. While cognitive psychology gained prominence in the 1960s, earlier psychologists also embraced a cognitive approach. Noteworthy contributors to cognitive psychology include Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), who studied how people remember word lists under different conditions, and Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969), who investigated cognitive and social processes in memory.
• Bartlett designed short stories that were logically structured but contained unexpected elements. He found that participants had difficulty recalling the stories accurately, even after repeated exposure, leading him to propose that the stories were challenging to remember because they did not align with participants' expectations of narrative structure. The notion that our memory is influenced by existing knowledge also underpinned the cognitive-developmental stage model by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Other influential cognitive psychologists include Donald E. Broadbent (1926-1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934-), George Miller (1920-2012), Eleanor Rosch (1938-), and Amos Tversky (1937-1996).
• The cognitive approach presented a distinct alternative to behaviorism by emphasizing the powerful influence of thinking on behavior. Cognitive psychologists argue that merely disregarding the mind itself is insufficient because individuals interpret the stimuli they encounter. For example, when a boy tells a girl on a date, "You are so beautiful," a behaviorist might view it as a reinforcing stimulus, while the girl might question the boy's intentions and analyze the context of the comment. Cognitive psychologists contend that considering the evaluation and interpretation of stimuli leads to a deeper understanding of behavior. 
• Cognitive psychology remains highly influential today, guiding research in diverse areas such as language, problem-solving, memory, intelligence, education, human development, social psychology, and psychotherapy. Recent advancements in neuroimaging techniques have further fueled the cognitive revolution, allowing researchers to observe brain activity during information processing. Neuroimaging involves various methods that provide images of the structure and function of the living brain, aiding in the diagnosis of brain disorders and injuries and enabling the study of information processing in the brain.

Social-Cultural Psychology

• The social-cultural approach, which operates at a higher level of analysis, has had a significant impact on psychology. Social-cultural psychology explores how social situations and cultural contexts influence thinking and behavior. Researchers in this field focus on understanding how individuals perceive themselves and others and how they influence each other's behavior. For instance, social psychologists have found that we are attracted to individuals who share similar attitudes and interests, that our beliefs and attitudes are shaped by comparing them to those of others, and that we often conform to the beliefs and behaviors of people we care about. 
• Social norms play a crucial role in social-cultural psychology, representing shared ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are considered appropriate within a group. These norms encompass customs, traditions, standards, rules, and general values, with cross-cultural psychologists studying the cultural variations of these norms. Culture, which encompasses the collective social norms, religious and family values, and moral beliefs shared by individuals in a specific geographical region, influences every aspect of our lives. Psychologists have identified fundamental differences in social norms between Western cultures (e.g., Canada, United States, Western Europe) and East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, Korea). Western cultures emphasize individualism, valuing personal independence and achievement, while East Asian cultures prioritize interdependence and collectivism, emphasizing harmonious social relationships and obligations to family and other groups.

• Cultural differences also play a significant role in the degree to which individuals adhere to social norms and customs, rather than freely expressing their individuality without considering societal expectations (Chan, Gelfand, Triandis, & Tzeng, 1996). Cultures vary in terms of personal space, such as the proximity individuals maintain when conversing, as well as their communication styles. Understanding cultures and cultural differences is crucial due to increased interaction among individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, facilitated by travel, immigration, and advancements in communication technology like the Internet. In Canada, for example, the population consists of numerous ethnic groups, with the proportion of minority (non-White) groups steadily increasing. The social-cultural approach emphasizes the complexity of making broad generalizations about human nature, as different individuals and cultures perceive and experience things differently.

The Many Disciplines of Psychology

Psychology encompasses various subdisciplines that share common approaches and collaborate to form a cohesive field (Yang & Chiu, 2009). With the breadth of the field, students often ponder which areas align with their interests and what career paths are available to them. Table 1.5, "Some Career Paths in Psychology," provides insights to help navigate these questions.

Psychology in Everyday Life: How to Effectively Learn and Remember

• Psychological research offers valuable insights that can significantly enhance your learning and study skills, not only in this course but also in various aspects of your life. Understanding the principles of learning and memory can help you excel academically and adapt to new concepts and techniques. Mastering effective study and memory techniques is a vital skill that will benefit you throughout your lifetime, aiding in job learning and other responsibilities. While learning and memory abilities differ among individuals, dedicating extra time to studying is always worthwhile. Like any other skill, learning to study effectively and remember information is a process that can be honed, akin to playing a sport or a video game.
• To optimize your learning, it is crucial to be prepared. Learning is hindered when you are tired, stressed, or under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Maintaining consistent sleep and eating patterns, consuming moderate and nutritious meals, and avoiding memory-impairing substances, particularly alcohol, are essential. Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence supporting the effectiveness of stimulants like caffeine or so-called "memory-enhancing drugs" in learning (Gold, Cahill, & Wenk, 2002; McDaniel, Maier, & Einstein, 2002). Memory supplements typically offer minimal benefits, comparable to consuming a sugary beverage that temporarily boosts memory through glucose release.
• Psychologists have extensively researched effective approaches to acquire, retain, and retrieve information from memory. One significant finding is that learning is an active process that requires active engagement with the material. Rehearsal, such as repeated repetition, aids in learning, but research suggests that actively thinking about and elaborating on the meaning of the information, and relating it to existing knowledge, promotes optimal information acquisition. When studying, strive to elaborate by connecting new information to what you already know. For example, when studying different schools of psychology, consider their distinctions and relate them to other approaches.
• An influential study by Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker (1977) demonstrated the effectiveness of elaborative encoding when students related information to themselves (known as the self-reference effect). This research indicates that linking the material to personal interests and goals enhances learning. Another approach, called the method of loci, involves associating each piece of information with familiar locations. Imagining people representing different schools of psychology placed in specific rooms of your childhood home can aid memory retrieval.
• The spacing effect is one of the fundamental principles of learning. Both humans and animals better remember and learn material when it is studied in shorter, spaced study sessions over a longer period, rather than cramming in one prolonged session. Cramming is an ineffective learning strategy. Psychologists have also found that setting challenging yet attainable goals enhances performance (Locke & Latham, 2006). Applying this knowledge, set realistic study goals for specific periods and stick to them. Consistently dedicating smaller study sessions each day yields significant progress by the end of the week.
• Metacognition, the ability to assess our own knowledge, plays a crucial role in learning. However, research suggests that metacognition can lead to overconfidence, causing us to believe we have learned material when we have not. To counteract this, simply reviewing your notes repeatedly is insufficient. Instead, create a list of questions and attempt to answer them. Review the information and test yourself after a few minutes. If any mistakes are made, review again. Wait for half an hour and test yourself once more. Repeat the testing process after one day and two days. Actively retrieving information through self-testing is superior to passive studying because it helps determine true comprehension. In summary, everyone can improve their learning abilities. Learning is a vital skill, and adhering to the aforementioned guidelines is likely to enhance your learning outcomes.