Long Questions: Villages, Towns and Trade | NCERT Summary: UPSC PDF Download

Q1: Why Mathura was an important site about 2500 years ago? Explain briefly.
Ans: Around 2500 years ago, Mathura was a significant settlement. Mathura's strategic location made it a significant city. Mathura was strategically located at the intersection of two major trade routes, making it extremely advantageous for trade. Mathura had been fortified on all sides. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas. Lord Krishna worship is still practised in Mathura. Mathura was a major centre for the creation of beautiful sculptures. In Mathura, several sculptures and inscriptions were discovered on stone surfaces and slabs.

Q2: What were the rules for spinning and weaving?
Ans: In the Arthashashtra, there were some regulations that were specified. These regulations were applied to the work of weavers and spinners under strict supervision. It was suggested that young women, widows, differently-abled people, retired king's employees, nuns, and others could be utilised to process wool, cotton, bark, flax, and hemp. Their remuneration was determined by the quality and amount of their job. People who are unable to come to work or who prefer to work from home can send their slaves or relatives to bring the raw materials from the superintendent and return when the task is completed, according to Arthashashtra.

Q3: Explain the term Northern Black Polished Ware.
Ans: Northern Black Polished Ware got its name from the fact that it was mostly discovered in the northern section of the Indian subcontinent. Northern Black Polished Ware is a robust metal ware with a gleaming black finish. Potters used to blacken the outside surface of earthenware by firing it at a very high temperature in the kiln. A potter finishes the piece by using a fine black slip to give it a mirror-like sheen. A group of merchants and craftsmen known as Shrenis was founded. Shrenis were the persons who took deposits from the wealthy.

Q4: What were the functions of Grambhojaka? Why was he powerful?
Ans: The gramabhojaka was the village's largest landowner. Gramabhojaka was the village headman, and he had a hereditary post. They possessed a wide range of abilities. They were the village's most powerful individuals. They were in charge of collecting taxes. Gramabhojaka served as a judge and had to operate as a police officer on occasion. They had slaves or employees who would cultivate their estates because they were the largest landowners. Grambhojaka had close ties to the authorities and rulers of the time. They became stronger as a result of their relationship.

Q5: Discuss about the people who lived in the villages of the northern part of the subcontinent. 
Ans: The village headman, field workers, independent farmers, and craftspeople made up the majority of the population in the northern section of the country. Gramabhojaka was the name of the village's chief. He controlled the majority of the land and was quite strong. The lesser landowners were known as Grihapatis, or independent farmers. Some people did not own property and made a living by working on other people's farms. Dasa Karmakar was the name given to these individuals. There were also craftspeople in most communities, such as blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, and weavers.

Q6: Explain in short the main features of Arikamedu settlement.
Ans: Arikamedu:

• This is located in Pondicherry. Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, this site was a coastal settlement.
• A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
• Other finds (of Arikamedu) include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy (or ancient Roman Empire). This was made by pressing which was made locally though Roman designs were used.
• Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site (i.e., Arikamedu).
• Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth.
• There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass.

Q7: Describe functions performed in early cities like Mathura.
Ans: Generally, some cities were considered important for a variety of reasons (or variety of functions performed in them). Let us look at the example of Mathura.
Mathura:

• It has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years.
• Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for people in the city, which was located at the cross roads of two major routes of communication, from the northwest to north and east and from north to south.
• There were fortifications around the city and several shrines.
• Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced.
• Around 2000 years ago Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas (remember their first capital was Purshpur or modern Peshawar in Pakistan).
• Mathura was also a religious centre – there were Buddhist monasteries. Jain shrines and it was an important centre for worship of Lord Krishna.

Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone, slabs, statues, have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men and women to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants and crafts persons who lived in the city. For example, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers.

Q8: How do we find out about early cities of subcontinent?
Ans: We find out about early cities of the subcontinent through the following:

• Stories or collection of ancient stories,
• Description of travellers and sailors,
• Sculpture, and
• Archaeology.

1. Stories: The Jatakas were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks. The Jatakas throw sufficient light on the lives of the people who used to like these.
2. Travellers and sailors: Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travellers who visited them. One of the most detailed accounts that has been found was by an unknown Greek sailor. He described all the ports he visited.
3. Sculptures: We can use other kinds of evidences to find out about life in some of these early cities. Sculptures carved scenes depicting peoples’ lives in towns and villages, as well as in the forests. Many of these sculptures were used to decorate railings, pillars and gateways of buildings that were visited by people. For example, we can see Sanchi, for a site with stupas, in Madhya Pradesh. This place shows us some beautiful scenes in that city.
4. Archaeologists: In many early cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other. We have been pointed out some ring wells by the archaeologists in early cities. These (ring wells) seem to have been used as toilets in some cases, and as drains and garbage dumps. These ring wells are usually found in individual houses. We have hardly any remains of palaces, markets or of homes of ordinary people. Perhaps some remain to be discovered by archaeologists. Others made of wood, mud brick and thatch, may not have survived.

Q9: Who lived in the villages in the subcontinent before and during the age of the Buddha?
Ans: Inhabitants in the Villages:
1. There were at least three different kinds of people living in most of the villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent.
2. (a) In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as Vellalar,
(b) Ordinary ploughmen were known as Uzhavar, and
(c) Landless labourers including slaves, were known as Kadaisiyar and Adimai.
3. (a) In the northern part of India, the village headman was known as the Grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the positions for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The Gramabhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge and sometimes as a policeman.
(b) Apart from the gramabhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as Grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners.
(c) And then there were men and women such as the dasa karamkara, who did not own land and had to earn a living working on the field of others.
4. In the most villages there were also some crafts persons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver.