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Genetic Markers and Preterm Birth

Context

• Preterm delivery is a leading cause of Neonatal fatalities (deaths among live newborns within the first 28 completed days of life) and problems worldwide. Recently, Indian researchers working on the Garbh-Ini program have discovered 19 genetic markers linked to preterm birth.
• An improvement in maternal and neonatal outcomes could result from the identification of genetic markers linked to preterm delivery and from the prediction and close monitoring of high-risk pregnancies.

What is Preterm Birth?

About: Preterm birth

• sometimes referred to as premature birth, is the birth of a child before the gestational period of 37 weeks is complete. Based on gestational age, there are many types of preterm birth:
• fewer than 28 weeks, which is incredibly premature
• extremely premature (28–32 weeks)
• (32–37 weeks) Late to moderate preterm.
• It is a serious problem for public health, especially in India and Southeast Asia, and is linked to newborns' delayed mental and physical development as well as higher disease risks as they age.
• Every ten births occur preterm around the world.
• In India, over 13% of newborns are born preterm each year. 23.4% of preterm births worldwide occur in India.

Fatality:

• Compared to newborns born at or after 37 weeks of gestation, preterm infants have a two- to four-times-higher risk of dying soon after birth.
• These infants' chance of developing ailments including Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and cancer increases as they get older.

How do genetic markers work?

• About: Genetic markers, usually referred to as DNA markers or genetic variations, are distinct DNA sequences linked to specific features, attributes, or diseases.
• DNA sequences or specific changes in the DNA sequence, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the most prevalent kind of genetic marker, can serve as genetic markers.
• They are used to find and examine genetic variations that may be connected to diseases, disorders, or other biological features in genetics research and clinical practice.
• Inflammation, apoptosis, cervical ripening, telomere maintenance, selenocysteine biosynthesis, myometrial contraction, and innate immunity are among the critical biological processes that these SNPs are known to control.

PSLV C55 and TeLEOS-2 Satellite

Context

• ISRO, is scheduled to launch the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle C55 (PSLV-C55) mission on April 22 with Singapore’s TeLEOS-2 as primary satellite and Lumelite-4 as a co-passenger satellite.

Backdrop PSLV

• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of India. It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
• It is an expendable medium-lift launch vehicle.
• It was developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun-synchronous orbits – a service that until the advent of the PSLV in 1993, was commercially available only from Russia.
• PSLV can also launch small size satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).
• Some notable payloads launched by PSLV include India's first lunar probe Chandrayaan-1, India's first interplanetary mission, Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and India's first space observatory, Astrosat.

About PSLV C-55

• The PSLV-C55 mission will be the 57th flight of PSLV and the 16th mission using the PSLV Core Alone configuration.
• The PSLV C55 rocket has four stages; each one was self-contained, with its own propulsion system, thereby capable of functioning independently.
• The first and third stages used composite solid propellants.
• The second and fourth stage use earth-storable liquid propellant.

What all is PSLV-C55 launching with?

• The PSLV-C55 mission will lift off with two big satellites with the

1. TeLEOS-2, a Synthetic Aperture Radar satellite as the primary mission and
2. Lumelite-4 a technology demonstration nano-satellite, will be a co-passenger satellite.

• The two satellites combined weigh around 757 kilograms.
• The two satellites are intended to be launched into an Eastward low-inclination orbit.

The satellites

TeLEOS-2 spacecraft

• The TeLEOS-2 spacecraft will provide imagery that could be used for hotspot monitoring and haze management, air crash search and rescue operations, and much more.
• It will provide all-weather day and night coverage and is capable of imaging at 1m full-polarimetric resolution.

LUMELITE-4

• It has also been developed by Singapore and is an advanced 12U satellite designed for the technology demonstration of the High-Performance Space-borne VHF Data Exchange System (VDES).
• Using the VDES communication payload Lumelite-4 aims to augment Singapore’s e-navigation maritime safety and benefit the global shipping community.

z LockBit Ransomware

About LockBit Ransomware:

• It is malicious software designed to block user access to computer systems in exchange for a ransom payment.
• It was formerly known as “ABCD” ransomware, but it has since grown into a unique threat within the scope of extortion tools.
• It is a subclass of ransomware known as a ‘crypto virus’ due to forming its ransom requests around financial payment in exchange for decryption.
• It focuses mostly on enterprises and government organizations rather than individuals.
• It functions as ransomware-as-a-service (RaaS). Willing parties put a deposit down for the use of custom for-hire attacks, and profit under an affiliate framework.

How does LockBit ransomware work?

• It works as a self-spreading malware, not requiring additional instructions once it has successfully infiltrated a single device with access to an organisational intranet.
• It is also known to hide executable encryption files by disguising them in the . PNG format, thereby avoiding detection by system defences.
• Attackers use phishing tactics and other social engineering methods to impersonate trusted personnel or authorities to lure victims into sharing credentials.
• Once it has gained access, the ransomware prepares the system to release its encryption payload across as many devices as possible.
• It then disables security programs and other infrastructures that could permit system data recovery.

Transformers in Machine Learning

Context

• In this article, Dr. Makarand Tapaswi is a senior machine learning scientist at Wadhwani AI, a non-profit on using AI for social good, and an assistant professor at the computer vision group at IIIT Hyderabad has discussed Machine learning (ML), a subfield of artificial intelligence.

What is Machine Learning (ML)?

• Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence which trains computers to perform problems based on structured data, language, voice, or pictures by providing examples of inputs and desired outputs.
• It is an application that enables a system to learn from its experiences and develop accordingly without the need for someone to directly put such changes into it.
• Machine learning allows systems and gadgets to develop without being programmed to that degree. It uses data for training in order to get reliable results.
• The basic goal of machine learning is to create computer programs that can get the necessary data and use it to learn on their own.

Types of Machine Learning

• Supervised learning is the most prevalent kind of machine learning. In this strategy, the computer is provided a collection of labeled data with the desired result already known. The computer then utilizes this data to train a model, which may subsequently be used to generate predictions on fresh, previously unknown data.
• Unsupervised learning involves dealing with unlabeled data. The computer is not provided any knowledge about the desired output and must instead discover patterns and structure in the data on its own.
  • This form of learning is frequently used for tasks such as clustering, in which the computer groups related data points together, or dimensionality reduction, in which the computer discovers a lower-dimensional representation of the data.
• Reinforcement learning is a type of machine learning that includes training a model to make decisions or take actions in an environment in order to achieve a desired outcome.
  • This form of learning is frequently utilized in activities such as robotics, where the machine must learn to navigate and interact with its surroundings.

Adoption of Transformers

• A transformer is a two-part neural network. The first component is a 'encoder,' which consumes the input sentence in the source language (e.g., English), and
  • The second is a 'decoder,' which creates the translated sentence in the target language (e.g. Hindi).
• The encoder converts each word in the source sentence to an abstract numerical form that captures the meaning of the word within the context of the sentence, and stores it in a memory bank.
• Transformers have also gained popularity in computer vision: they just break a picture into little square patches and line them up like words in a text.
• By doing so, and after training on vast quantities of data, a transformer can outperform CNNs.
• Transformer models are now the best solution for picture classification, object identification and segmentation, action recognition, and a variety of other applications.
• The capacity of transformers to consume anything has been used to develop combined vision-and-language models that allow users to search for an image (e.g., Google Image Search), describe one, and even answer questions about the picture.

How is machine learning different from traditional computer programming?

• It differs from typical computer programming, in which programmers create a series of explicit instructions.
• Here, the ML model learns to provide desirable outputs by modifying its numerous knobs, which can number in the millions.
• ML has a history of inventing approaches with hand-crafted characteristics that may only work for certain, restricted issues. There are several examples of this.
  • In writing, determining whether a work is scientific or literary may be accomplished by counting the number of times particular terms appear.
  • In audio, spoken text is recognized by transforming the audio to a time-frequency representation.
  • In images, a car can be located in photos by looking for distinctive car-like edge-shaped patterns.
• Such hand-crafted features are combined with simple, or shallow, learning classifiers that typically have up to tens of thousands of knobs. In technical parlance, these knobs are called parameters.

What is ‘attention’ in machine learning?

• In machine learning, attention allows a model to learn how much weight to assign to various inputs.
• In the translation example, attention allows the model to choose or weigh words from the memory bank when determining which word to create next.
• While describing an image, attention allows models to look at the important areas of the image while creating the following term.
• The capacity of attention-based models to self-discover by processing a large amount of input is remarkable.
• Transformers are attention models on steroids. They include numerous attention layers, both inside the encoder to offer relevant context throughout the input sentence or picture, and from the decoder to the encoder when creating a translated sentence or describing an image.

Applications of Machine Learning

• Field of healthcare: These technologies have the potential to completely transform how we identify and treat disease. Machine learning algorithms, for example, may be used to evaluate medical pictures and accurately detect illnesses such as cancer. Furthermore, virtual assistants powered by AI can support patients in managing their health by giving individualized health information and tracking their symptoms.
• AI in finance: These technologies may be used to evaluate enormous volumes of financial data and create predictions about market patterns and individual stock performance. This may be used to assist traders make better educated trades. This technology is also being used to detect and prevent fraud, as well as to make smarter financial decisions.
• Natural Language Processing (NLP): This is the use of algorithms to interpret and produce human language. NLP is being utilized in a range of applications, including chatbots and virtual assistants that can interpret and respond to human voice and text. This technology is also being used to analyze and comprehend vast amounts of text data, such as customer reviews or social media postings, in order to acquire insights and make better decisions.
• Image and Object Recognition: Machine learning algorithms can be trained to recognize and classify objects in images or videos, enabling applications such as facial recognition, object detection, and autonomous vehicles.
• Fraud Detection: Machine learning can analyze patterns and detect anomalies in large datasets, helping identify fraudulent activities in areas like credit card transactions, insurance claims, and cybersecurity.
• Autonomous Vehicles: Machine learning is crucial for self-driving cars and autonomous vehicles. It involves processing sensory data from cameras, radar, and lidar to make real-time decisions on navigation, object avoidance, and route planning.
• Energy and Utilities: Machine learning can optimize energy consumption, predict electricity demand, and improve grid stability through load forecasting and smart grid management.
• Gaming and Entertainment: Machine learning is used in game development for tasks like character behavior modeling, opponent AI, and realistic physics simulations.

Artificial Sweeteners 

Context

Artificial sweeteners have gained popularity among calorie-conscious individuals seeking low-calorie options. However, recent studies have raised concerns about their long-term effectiveness for weight loss and potential health risks.

• The World Health Organization (WHO) has released recommendations against the use of artificial sweeteners for weight control and prevention of lifestyle diseases.

What are Artificial Sweeteners?

• About:
  • Artificial sweeteners are sugar substitutes that are used as alternatives to natural sugars.
  • These sweeteners are chemically synthesized and provide a sweet taste without the high calorie content of regular sugar.
  • They are commonly used in various food and beverage products, including diet sodas, sugar-free desserts, and low-calorie snacks.
    • Some examples of artificial sweeteners are saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), sucralose, neotame, and advantame.
• Benefits:
  • Artificial sweeteners offer benefits for weight management, diabetes control, tooth decay prevention, and provide safe options for individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU), a genetic disorder, due to their low or zero-calorie content, minimal impact on blood sugar levels, non-fermentable nature, and absence of phenylalanine.
• Negative Impacts:
  • Controversial Health Effects:
    • Some studies suggest potential negative health effects of artificial sweeteners, such as an increased risk of metabolic disorders, and disrupted gut microbiota. However, scientific evidence remains inconclusive.
  • Digestive Issues:
    • Some people may experience digestive discomfort, such as bloating, gas, or diarrhea, after consuming products containing artificial sweeteners.

What are the Key Findings from the WHO Report?

• Findings:
  • WHO advises against using artificial sweeteners as a means of achieving weight control or reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases.
  • While short-term use may result in weight loss and reduced body mass index (BMI), long-term consumption of artificial sweeteners has been associated with weight gain.
  • Some studies suggest a potential connection between artificial sweeteners and bladder cancer and preterm birth in pregnant women.
  • Higher intake of artificial sweeteners, particularly in beverages and added to foods, is associated with an increased risk of type-2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease (including stroke and hypertension), and preterm birth.
• WHO Recommendations:
  • Instead of relying solely on non-sugar sweeteners, the WHO recommends considering other methods to reduce the intake of free sugars, such as consuming naturally occurring sugars from fruits or opting for unsweetened food and beverages.

25th Anniversary of Pokhran-II

Context

India recently celebrated the 25^th anniversary of Pokhran-II on 11^th May 2023 marking the successful nuclear bomb test explosions which became a significant milestone in its journey to become a nuclear power.

• May 11 is also celebrated as the National Technology Day to honour Indian scientists, engineers and technologists, who worked for the country's scientific and technological advancement and ensured the successful conduct of Pokhran tests.

What is Pokhran-II and India’s Journey as a Nuclear Power?

• Origin:
  • In 1945, renowned physicist Homi J. Bhaba lobbied for the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Bombay, dedicated to nuclear physics research.
    • TIFR became India’s first research institution dedicated to the study of nuclear physics.
  • Post-independence, Bhaba convinced the then PM Jawaharlal Nehru about the importance of nuclear energy and in 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was founded, with Bhabha as the director.
    • The DAE operated autonomously, away from significant public scrutiny.
• Reasons for India's Pursuit of Nuclear Weapons:
  • India's pursuit of nuclear weapons was motivated by concerns over its sovereignty and security threats from China and Pakistan.
  • The 1962 Sino-Indian War and China's nuclear test in 1964 heightened the need for India to safeguard its national security.
  • The war with Pakistan in 1965, with Chinese support, further emphasized the need for self-sufficiency in defense capabilities.
• Pokhran- I:
  • About:
    • By the 1970s, India was capable of conducting a nuclear bomb test.
      • Pokhran-I was India's first nuclear bomb test conducted on May 18, 1974, at the Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan.
    • It was code-named Smiling Buddha and officially described as a "peaceful nuclear explosion" with “few military implications”.
    • India became the 6^th country in the world to possess nuclear weapons capability after the US, Soviet Union, Britain, France and China.
  • Implications of Test:
    • The tests faced near-universal condemnation and significant sanctions especially from US and Canada.
      • It hindered India's progress in nuclear technology and slowed down its nuclear journey.
    • Domestic political instability, such as the Emergency of 1975 and opposition to nuclear weapons also hindered progress.
  • After Pokhran-I:
    • The 1980s saw a resurgence of interest in nuclear weapons development due to Pakistan's progress.
    • India increased funding for its missile program and expanded its plutonium stockpiles.
• Pokhran-II:
  • About:
    • Pokhran-II refers to a sequence of five nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India on between 11-13^th May 1998 at Rajasthan's Pokhran desert.
    • Code name - Operation Shakti, this event marked India's 2^nd successful attempt.
  • Significance:
    • Pokhran-II cemented India's status as a nuclear power.
    • It demonstrated India's ability to possess and deploy nuclear weapons, thus enhancing its deterrence capabilities.
    • The Indian government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee officially declared itself as a state possessing nuclear weapons following Pokhran-II.
  • Implication:
    • While the tests in 1998 also invited sanctions from some countries (like the US), the condemnation was far from universal like in 1974.
    • In context of India’s fast-growing economy and market potential, India was able to stand its ground and thus cement its status as a dominant nation state.
• India's Nuclear Doctrine:
  • India adopted a policy of credible minimum deterrence, stating that it would maintain a sufficient nuclear arsenal for deterrence purposes but would not engage in an arms race.
  • In 2003, India officially came out with its nuclear doctrine that clearly elaborated on the 'no first use' policy.
• India's Current Nuclear Capability:
  • India currently possesses approximately 160 nuclear warheads, according to the Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
  • India has achieved an operational nuclear triad capability, allowing for the launch of nuclear weapons from land, air, and sea.
    • The triad delivery systems include Agni, Prithvi, and K series ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft, and nuclear submarines.

What is India's Status on Various International Treaties about Nuclear Weapons?

• Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) 1968:
  • India is not a signatory; it declined to accede to the NPT, citing concerns about the treaty's perceived discriminatory nature and lack of reciprocal obligations from nuclear weapons states.
• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT):
  • India has not signed the CTBT as it is a strong advocate for a time-bound disarmament commitment from nuclear weapon states (NWS) and may use the lack of a commitment as a reason to refrain from signing the CTBT.
• The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW):
  • It entered into force on 22 January 2021 and India is not a member of this treaty.
• Nuclear Suppliers Group(NSG):
  • India is not a member of the NSG.
• Wassenaar Arrangement:
  • India joined the arrangement on December 2017 as its 42nd participating state.