Transgenic Crops and Biosafety Aspects | Botany Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Genetically Modified Crops in India

The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) in India has recently made headlines due to its decision to delay the approval of Bt Cotton. This decision has significant implications for the agricultural sector and raises questions about the future of genetically modified (GM) crops in the country.

Background

• GEAC's move to postpone the approval of Bt Cotton stems from its request for the developer of this genetically modified cotton variant to submit a fresh dossier. This new dossier should include updated data on Bt Cotton's effectiveness against specific pests and a comprehensive socio-economic analysis.
• The delay in approving the updated version of Bt Cotton is occurring at a critical juncture, as illegal cultivation of Bt Cotton has been on the rise, flooding the market and posing challenges for regulatory authorities.

Genetically Modified (GM) Organisms and GM Foods

• To understand the significance of the delay in approving Bt Cotton, it's crucial to grasp the concept of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and GM foods. GMOs are organisms, such as plants, animals, or microorganisms, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been deliberately altered in a way that does not occur naturally through mating or recombination. This scientific process is often referred to as "modern biotechnology," "gene technology," "recombinant DNA technology," or "genetic engineering."
• Genetic engineering allows the transfer of selected individual genes from one organism to another, even between unrelated species. When these modified organisms are used in food production, the resulting products are known as GM foods.

Advantages of GM Crops

GM crops have demonstrated several advantages in agriculture, including:

• Resistance against Insects: Incorporating genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) into crops has made them resistant to certain pests, reducing the need for insecticides.
• Resistance to Plant Viruses: GM crops can be engineered to resist viruses that harm plants.
• Tolerance to Herbicides: Some GM crops are designed to tolerate specific herbicides, simplifying weed control.
• Addressing Poverty and Hunger: GM crops have contributed to achieving United Nations Sustainable Development Goals by increasing yields, boosting farmer incomes, and enhancing food security.
• Cost-Effective Production: GM crops often require fewer resources for pest control, reducing production costs.
• Survivability in Harsh Climates: GM crops can thrive in environments prone to droughts or unsuitable soil conditions.
• Extended Shelf Life and Enhanced Taste: GM crops can have longer shelf lives, reducing food waste, and offering better taste.
• Improved Nutrition: Genetic modification can enhance the nutritional content of foods.

Challenges Associated with GM Crops

Despite their advantages, GM crops also face significant challenges, including:

• Ecological Concerns: Cross-pollination can lead to the development of resistant weeds, potentially eroding biodiversity.
• Nutritional Compromises: Some GM crops prioritize yield and durability over nutritional value.
• Economic Concerns: Claims about stress tolerance, nutrition, and yields have not always proven accurate.
• Chemical Usage: The use of herbicides like glyphosate in GM agriculture has raised concerns about human health and environmental impact.
• Toxicity: Consumption of GM foods is associated with concerns about antibiotic-resistant diseases.
• Concentration of Toxic Metals: Some GM crops can accumulate heavy metals from the soil.
• Ethical Concerns: Issues related to human health, environmental impact, corporate dominance, and the "unnaturalness" of GM technology have sparked ethical debates.

GM Crop Cultivation in India

• India is ranked fifth worldwide in the cultivation of genetically modified (GM) crops. The country is actively promoting the adoption of GM crops as a means to ensure food security and reduce the need for imports, particularly in the production of edible oils. Factors like Russia's invasion of Ukraine disrupted imports and raised prices, highlighting the importance of self-sufficiency. India's growing population and decreasing arable land necessitate more efficient farming methods.
• Regulation of GM crops in India falls under the purview of the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC), a body operating under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC). The GEAC is responsible for assessing proposals related to the release of genetically engineered organisms and products into the environment, including experimental field trials.
• Two prominent examples of GM crops in India are Bt Cotton and GM Mustard. Bt Cotton incorporates a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, making the cotton crop resistant to bollworm, a destructive cotton plant pest. GM Mustard, known as Dhara Mustard Hybrid (DMH-11), was developed through government-funded research at Delhi University, led by genetics professor Deepak Pental. It uses genes from a soil bacterium to enhance mustard's hybridization capabilities and claims to offer a yield increase of 25-30% over non-hybrids.
• India has established various acts and rules to regulate GM crops, including the Environment Protection Act, 1986 (EPA), Biological Diversity Act, 2002, Plant Quarantine Order, 2003, GM policy under Foreign Trade Policy, Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, and the Drugs and Cosmetics Rule (8th Amendment), 1988. These rules encompass research and development of GMOs, field and clinical trials, deliberate or unintentional GMO release, as well as GMO import, export, and manufacturing activities.

GM Crop Cultivation in India

• Cotton: Bt Cotton, a genetically modified cotton variety resistant to pests, was the first GM crop to be commercially cultivated in India between 2002 and 2003. By 2014, approximately 96% of India's cotton cultivation area was covered by Bt Cotton, positioning India as the fourth-largest cultivator of GM crops by land area and the second-largest cotton producer.
• Mustard: The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) has recently granted approval for the environmental release of two genetically engineered mustard varieties to develop new parental lines and hybrids.
• Brinjal: Initially, the GEAC approved the evaluation of transgenic brinjal, known as Bt brinjal. However, this decision was reversed due to strong public opposition.
• Illegal Cultivation of GM Crops: There have been a few instances of suspected unauthorized cultivation of Bt brinjal and HT cotton reported in states such as Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Ongoing Research: Indian research institutions are actively involved in developing genetically modified seeds for 13 different crops, including rice, wheat, sugarcane, potato, pigeon pea lentils, chickpeas, and bananas.

Challenges and the Way Forward

• The delay in approving Bt Cotton highlights the need for more robust regulatory measures in India's biotechnology sector. Ecological risk assessments, gene flow, and secondary pest resistance should be thoroughly addressed before commercialization. The involvement of state governments in granting No Objection Certificates for GM crop trials should be made mandatory.
• India must continue its GM crop research to meet its food and nutrition security goals. Bio-safety considerations should guide the development and release of GM crops on a case-by-case basis.
• In conclusion, the journey of GM crops in India is marked by both promise and challenges. As technology advances, effective regulation becomes paramount to ensure the responsible cultivation and sale of environmentally safe agricultural products. A unified regulatory system and online portal are essential steps in this direction.

Biosafety Concerns

With the increasing release and commercialization of transgenic crops, concerns have arisen regarding potential risks to both human health and the environment. Biosafety refers to the principles, procedures, and policies implemented to ensure environmental and personal safety. Recognizing the importance of biosafety in genetic engineering (GE) research and development, an international multilateral agreement called the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) has been adopted by 167 parties, including 165 United Nations countries, Niue, and the European Union.
The CPB came into effect on September 11, 2003, with its primary objectives being:

• Establishing procedures for the safe transboundary movement of living modified organisms.
• Harmonizing principles and methodologies for risk assessment and creating a mechanism for information sharing through the Biosafety Clearing House (BCH).

Research conducted in the field of genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) necessitates prior approval from the relevant regulatory authorities in each country, with strict adherence to guidelines aimed at minimizing biosafety concerns. At the research institute level, the Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC) or its equivalent body, comprising experts from various relevant disciplines, plays a vital role. The IBSC ensures the availability of necessary biosafety equipment based on the safety level required for the experiments.

Awareness of biosafety issues has been steadily increasing among researchers, producers, users of GMOs, administrators, policymakers, environmentalists, and the general public worldwide. Transgenic crops are not inherently toxic and are unlikely to proliferate in the environment. However, specific crops may pose risks due to novel combinations of traits. Therefore, a case-by-case approach is essential for risk assessment and management.

The major biosafety concerns fall into several categories:

• Bio-safety of Human and Animal Health:
  • Concerns about toxicity resulting from the nature of the product or metabolic changes in organisms due to gene transfer.
  • The risk of newer proteins in transgenic crops, which may not have been consumed as foods, becoming allergens.
  • Use of genes for antibiotic resistance as selectable markers, raising concerns about gene transfer to microorganisms and exacerbating health issues related to antibiotic resistance in disease-causing organisms.
• Ecological Concerns:
  • Gene flow through cross-pollination can lead to the development of tolerant or resistant weeds that are challenging to eradicate.
  • GM crops could contribute to biodiversity loss and contamination of gene pools of endangered plant species.
  • Genetic erosion has occurred as farmers replace traditional varieties with monocultures.
• Environmental Concerns:
  • The impact of transgenic plants on the population dynamics of target and non-target pests, secondary pest problems, insect sensitivity, evolution of new insect biotypes, environmental factors affecting gene expression, development of resistance in insect populations, and resistance to herbicides.
  • Gene escape into the environment through accidental crossbreeding between GM plants and traditional varieties via pollen transfer, potentially contaminating traditional local varieties with GMO genes.
• Public Attitudes:
  • Consumer responses depend on perceptions of the risks and benefits of genetically modified foods. Media, individuals, scientists, administrators, politicians, and NGOs have a responsibility to educate people about the advantages of GM foods.
• Socioeconomic and Ethical Considerations:
  • Assessing potential benefits for consumers and farmers, with concerns about developing countries becoming dependent on a limited number of seed suppliers.
  • Concerns related to Gene Use Restriction Technologies (GURT), with India completely banning their use in plant variety registration under the PPV & FRA, 2001.

Regulatory Mechanisms in India

Biosafety regulations encompass the assessment of risks and the policies and procedures implemented to ensure the safe application of biotechnology. In India, the regulatory framework for transgenic crops is governed by specific rules and guidelines.
These include:

• Rules and Policies
  • Rules established in 1989 under the Environment Protection Act of 1986.
  • Seed Policy of 2002.
• Guidelines
  • Recombinant DNA guidelines of 1990.
  • Guidelines for research in transgenic crops of 1998.

Two key agencies responsible for implementing these rules are the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change and the Department of Biotechnology, both under the Government of India. The rules have also defined competent authorities and their compositions for handling various aspects of the regulatory framework.
There are six competent authorities specified by the rules:

• Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC)
• Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM)
• Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)
• Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBSC)
• State Biosafety Coordination Committees (SBCC)
• District Level Committees (DLC)

Among these, the three agencies involved in approving new transgenic crops are:

• IBSC: These committees are established at each institution to oversee research involving genetically modified organisms (GMOs) at the institute level.
• RCGM: Set up at the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), this committee monitors ongoing research activities related to GMOs and small-scale field trials.
• GEAC: Operating within the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, the GEAC is responsible for authorizing large-scale trials and the environmental release of genetically modified organisms.

The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC), constituted by the DBT, tracks developments in biotechnology at both national and international levels and formulates appropriate recommendations. State Biotechnology Coordination Committees (SBCCs) are established in each state where research and application of GMOs are considered. They coordinate GMO-related activities within the state and possess monitoring capabilities, including the authority to inspect, investigate, and take punitive measures in cases of violations. Similarly, District Level Committees (DLCs) are established at the district level to oversee safety regulations at facilities engaged in GMO research and application.