Critique of Empiricism (Quine and Strawson) | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

Empiricism Background

• Empiricism is a philosophical tradition that underscores experience, particularly sensory experience, as the foundation of knowledge.
• Originated in ancient Greece with thinkers like Aristotle, who believed knowledge is derived from experience and observation.
• Developed further in the early modern period with philosophers like John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
• John Locke proposed the "blank slate" notion of the mind, shaped by experience.
• George Berkeley advocated "idealism," asserting that all knowledge stems from mental perceptions.
• David Hume emphasized strict empiricism, highlighting the role of experience in belief formation.
• Empiricism contrasts with rationalism, which emphasizes reason and innate ideas in knowledge formation.

Quine and Strawson's Critiques Overview

• Willard Van Orman Quine and Peter Frederick Strawson, 20th-century philosophers, critiqued empiricism.
• Their critiques targeted the analytic-synthetic distinction, a central empiricist tenet.
• These critiques have significantly influenced contemporary philosophy, sparking new debates in epistemology and metaphysics.

Willard Van Orman Quine

Biography and Philosophical Background

• Quine (1908-2000) was an American philosopher and logician known for contributions to epistemology, metaphysics, and philosophy of language.
• Studied at Oberlin College and Harvard, earning his Ph.D. under Alfred North Whitehead.
• Influenced by logical positivism, seeking to ground knowledge in empirical observation and logical analysis.
• Developed a holistic approach to language and knowledge, emphasizing belief interconnectedness and empirical evidence.

Quine's Critique of Analytic-Synthetic Distinction

• In "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" (1951), Quine criticized:
  • Analytic-synthetic distinction.
  • Reduction of all meaningful statements to immediate experience.
• Argued the distinction is untenable, based on arbitrary meaning-fact separation.
• Introduced indeterminacy of translation, questioning unique sentence translation.
• Introduced inscrutability of reference, challenging objective word referents.
• Proposed naturalized epistemology, rejecting traditional project and promoting empirical evidence's role.

Role of Science in Understanding Knowledge

• Quine advocated understanding knowledge via empirical science instead of philosophical analysis or introspection.
• Believed beliefs are shaped by experience, subject to empirical investigation.
• Emphasized empirical evidence and scientific methods in understanding knowledge.

Peter Frederick Strawson

Biography and Philosophical Background

• Strawson (1919-2006) was a British philosopher known for contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of language.
• Studied at the University of Oxford and later became a professor.
• Associated with "ordinary language philosophy," focusing on everyday language analysis.
• Influenced by philosophers like Wittgenstein, Austin, and Ryle.

Strawson's Critique of Analytic-Synthetic Distinction

• In "On Referring" (1950), Strawson challenged the distinction by examining reference in language.
• Criticized Bertrand Russell's "theory of descriptions," asserting meaningfulness without truth or falsity.
• Introduced distinction between referring and predicating expressions.
• Emphasized importance of presuppositions in language and their role in meaning and truth.

Strawson's Descriptive Metaphysics

• Developed "descriptive metaphysics" in "Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics" (1959).
• Aimed to describe fundamental concepts structuring our world view, as opposed to revising them.
• Emphasized the concept of a "person" as central to understanding our world view.
• Advocated analysis of ordinary language for insights into fundamental concepts.

Quine and Strawson: Points of Agreement

Critique of Analytic-Synthetic Distinction

• Both challenged the analytic-synthetic distinction, a core empiricist principle.
• Quine's critique focused on indeterminacy of translation and inscrutability of reference.
• Strawson's critique explored presuppositions and the referring-predicating distinction.

Rejection of Traditional Epistemological Project

• Both rejected the traditional project, which aimed to ground knowledge in certain, indubitable foundations.
• Quine proposed naturalized epistemology, emphasizing empirical evidence and scientific methods.
• Strawson, while not endorsing naturalized epistemology, shifted focus to descriptive metaphysics and ordinary language.

Importance of Language in Understanding Metaphysics

• Both recognized language's significance in understanding metaphysics and knowledge.
• Quine emphasized belief interconnectedness and empirical evidence.
• Strawson highlighted ordinary language's role in revealing fundamental concepts.

Quine and Strawson: Points of Disagreement

Alternative Approaches

• Quine advocated naturalized epistemology and reliance on empirical science.
• Strawson focused on descriptive metaphysics and ordinary language, with less emphasis on empirical science.

Role of Science in Understanding Knowledge

• Quine saw empirical science as the best means to understand knowledge and reality.
• Strawson acknowledged science but believed it should not be the sole means; ordinary language and conceptual frameworks were crucial.

Concept of a "Person"

Quine and Strawson had different perspectives on the concept of a "person" in their philosophical work. Quine didn't give significant attention to the idea of a "person" and instead focused on the holistic nature of our beliefs and the role of empirical evidence in shaping our understanding of the world. On the other hand, Strawson developed a detailed account of the concept of a "person" and argued that it is fundamental to our understanding of the world and our place in it. He believed that the concept of a "person" reveals important aspects of our conceptual framework. Unlike Quine, Strawson proposed that persons are entities with both physical and mental attributes, and our understanding of them is influenced by our ordinary language and conceptual framework. 

Criticisms of Quine's Critique of Empiricism

Responses to Indeterminacy of Translation

• Donald Davidson argued indeterminacy isn't as radical as Quine suggested; principle of charity helps interpretation.
• Jerry Fodor criticized indeterminacy, proposing the language of thought hypothesis for determinate mental representations.

Role of Analytic-Synthetic Distinction in Contemporary Philosophy

• Some philosophers maintain the distinction using criteria like a priori and a posteriori knowledge.
• Others rely on meaning and reference to preserve the distinction without analyticity.

Viability of Naturalized Epistemology

• Critics argue naturalized epistemology falls short in addressing normative aspects of epistemology.
• Some see it as still relying on philosophical assumptions rather than purely empirical methods.

Criticisms of Strawson's Critique of Empiricism

Responses to Strawson's Critique of Analytic-Synthetic Distinction

• Some philosophers claim Strawson misunderstood the distinction, proposing distinctions like "deep" and "shallow" analytics.
• Others assert linguistic conventions determine meaning and truth conditions, preserving the distinction.

Role of Ordinary Language in Metaphysics

• Supporters of ordinary language philosophy praise its accuracy in understanding metaphysical concepts.
• Critics argue ordinary language can be imprecise for complex metaphysical issues, requiring a more technical approach.

Viability of Descriptive Metaphysics

• Supporters argue descriptive metaphysics clarifies fundamental concepts and categories.
• Critics contend it's too conservative and limited, unable to address more radical metaphysical questions.

The Legacy of Quine and Strawson's Critiques

Impact on Contemporary Philosophy

• Quine and Strawson's critiques have shaped contemporary philosophy, influencing epistemology, metaphysics, and philosophy of language.
• Their challenges have led to post-empirist epistemologies and alternative metaphysical approaches.

Ongoing Debate Over Empiricism and Its Alternatives

• Quine and Strawson's critiques haven't led to empiricism's abandonment but prompted refinement.
• Debates continue, reflecting the enduring influence of their critiques and their relevance in contemporary philosophy.

Influence on Subsequent Philosophers

• Quine and Strawson's critiques influenced philosophers like Davidson, Putnam, and Kripke.
• These critiques also inspired various fields, including ethics, political philosophy, and philosophy of mind.

Alternative Approaches to Empiricism

Revival of Neo-Empiricism

• Neo-empiricism emerged as a response to Quine and Strawson's critiques.
• Figures like Hilary Putnam and Bas van Fraassen refined empiricism by emphasizing the role of the external world and empirical evidence.

Rise of Pragmatism and its Relation to Empiricism

• Pragmatism, originating with philosophers like Peirce and James, focuses on practical consequences of beliefs.
• Contemporary pragmatists like Rorty and Putnam seek inclusive approaches that blend empiricism and pragmatism.

Development of Post-Empiricist Epistemologies

• Post-empirist epistemologies aim to incorporate insights from both empiricism and rationalism.
• Figures like Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend, and Michel Foucault explore diverse approaches and emphasize historical and social factors.

Conclusion

Summary of Quine and Strawson's Critiques

• Quine and Strawson critiqued empiricism, challenging the analytic-synthetic distinction and traditional epistemological projects.
• Quine's critique addressed indeterminacy and inscrutability, advocating naturalized epistemology.
• Strawson emphasized ordinary language and descriptive metaphysics, focusing on the concept of a "person."

Ongoing Relevance in Contemporary Philosophy

• Quine and Strawson's critiques remain relevant, shaping debates in epistemology, metaphysics, and philosophy of language.
• Their challenges have led to alternative approaches and post-empirist epistemologies, demonstrating their enduring influence.