Theory of Causation & Atomistic Theory of Creation (Nyâya-Vaiśeṣika) | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

Origins of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Philosophical Systems

• Ancient Indian Philosophical Roots: Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika emerged around 200 BCE, focusing on logic, ontology, and reality's nature.
• Pioneers and Founding Texts: Gautama founded Nyāya with the Nyāya Sūtras, and Kanāda founded Vaiśeṣika with the Vaiśeṣika Sūtras.

Contribution to Indian Epistemology and Metaphysics

• Detailed Investigation: Both systems explore logic and the interconnectedness of events and substances.
• Theory of Causation: Explores how events lead to others, emphasizing material, efficient, instrumental, and conjunctional causes.

Historical Context and Overview

Ancient Indian Philosophical Background

• Six Orthodox Schools: Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika are part of the “Shad-darshana,” influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Schools of Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika

• Founding Personalities: Akṣapāda Gautama (Nyāya) and Kaṇāda (Vaiśeṣika) laid the foundations.
• Core Tenets: Nyāya focuses on logic, Vaiśeṣika on metaphysics and atomistic theory.

Integration of Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika into Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika

• Historical Synthesis: In the 10th to 12th centuries, the two schools merged due to shared interests.

Foundations of Theory of Causation in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika

Definition of Cause and Effect

• ‘Hetu’ (Cause): Fundamental concept in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika philosophy, leading to outcomes.
• ‘Phala’ (Effect): The transformation resulting from a cause.

Types of Causation

• Material, Efficient, Formal, and Final Causes: Categories explaining different aspects of causation.
• Nyāya’s Asatkāryavāda vs Sāṃkhya’s Satkāryavāda: Different views on whether the effect pre-exists in the cause or not.

Concept of Atomism and The Atomistic Theory of Creation

Atom as the Ultimate Substance

• ‘Paramāṇu’ (Atom): Smallest, indivisible, and indestructible matter particle in Vaiśeṣika.

Process of Creation through Atomistic Combinations

• Binary and Ternary Combinations: Atoms combine to form molecules, governed by universal laws.

Historical Views on Atomism

• Vaiśeṣika Sūtra and Later Commentaries: Early text and later philosophers contributed to atomism’s understanding.

Detailed Study of Key Texts and Commentaries

Kaṇāda’s Vaiśeṣika Sūtra

• Major Themes: Substance, quality, action, universality, particularity, and inherence.
• Significance: Laid foundation for Vaiśeṣika, one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy.

Udayana’s Commentary in “Kiraṇāvali” (10th Century)

• Major Themes: Elaborated on Kaṇāda’s categories, enhancing clarity.
• Significance: Clarified complex ideas, impacting theistic arguments.

Gangeśa’s Analysis in “Tattvacintāmaṇi” (13th Century)

• Major Themes: Explored perception, inference, and philosophy of language.
• Significance: Bridged traditional and new logic in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.

Comparative Study

Comparing with Buddhist Cause and Effect Theory

• Similarities: Both theories acknowledge impermanence and rely on empirical observation.
• Differences: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika asserts an external world, while Buddhism focuses on mind-dependent reality.

Comparing with Advaita Vedānta’s Theory of Non-causality

• Similarities: Both delve into metaphysics and include consciousness.
• Differences: Advaita Vedānta argues for non-dualistic reality, dismissing causality as illusion, unlike Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.

Comparing with Western Philosophers like Hume, Aristotle

• Similarities: Both emphasize causality and empirical observation.
• Differences: Hume questions necessary connection; Aristotle categorizes causes differently from Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.

Philosophical Implications

Theory of Causation Influences Ethics and Decision Making

• Moral Responsibility: Causation underpins moral responsibility concepts.
• Decision-Making: Understanding causal relationships guides ethical decisions, especially in applied ethics.

Atomistic Theory Affects Metaphysical Discussions on Reality

• Concept of Reality: Atomism offers an alternative perspective on reality’s building blocks.
• Metaphysical Debates: Contributes to discussions on materialism, idealism, and reality’s nature.

Criticisms and Responses

Issues with Nyāya’s Asatkāryavāda

• Circular Reasoning: Asatkāryavāda might involve circular reasoning.
• Lack of Clarity: Criticized for being less clear than Sāṃkhya’s Satkāryavāda.
• Complexity: Nyāya’s numerous classifications of causes are considered complex.

Criticisms of Atomism: Logical and Scientific

• Infinite Regression: Atom being the ultimate substance leads to infinite regression.
• Contradictions with Modern Physics: Atomistic theory contradicts subatomic particles’ understanding.
• Logical Flaws: Critics point out inconsistencies in explaining atom combinations.

Response and Rebuttal: Later Commentaries and Modern Interpretations

• Addressing Circular Reasoning: Modern interpretations provide robust definitions, countering circular reasoning.
• Clarity and Elaboration: Philosophers elaborate and clarify premises, making them more applicable.
• Reconciling with Modern Science: Attempts made to reconcile atomistic theories with modern scientific discoveries.

Interrelation with Previously Covered Topics

Theory of Causation Relates to God and Self in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika

• God as the Ultimate Cause: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika considers God the ultimate cause, influencing the study of causation.
• Role of Self: Self is related to causation as the experiencer of effects, impacting ethical deliberations.

Atomistic Theory and its Relation to Theory of Categories and Pramāṇa

• Theory of Categories: Atomistic Theory links with Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika’s theory of categories, especially Substance.
• Relation to Pramāṇa: Understanding atomism aids in understanding different forms of knowledge in Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.

Conclusion

Summary of Major Findings and Interpretations

• Theory of Causation: Central to Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, impacting metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
• Atomistic Theory of Creation: Cornerstone for Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika’s cosmology and metaphysics.
• Comparative Studies: Revealed similarities and differences, enriching understanding of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika.

Future Directions for Research

• Ontological Questions: Explore Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika’s contributions to contemporary ontology.
• Ethical Frameworks: Delve into ethical considerations from these theories for fresh perspectives.
• Science and Philosophy: Scrutinize atomistic theory in modern physics and its applications in interdisciplinary studies.

Conclusive Remarks

• Contribution to Philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika provides a coherent philosophical system with enduring relevance.
• Need for Continued Inquiry: Given the depth, further research and scholarship are essential.