Moksa (Schools of Vedanta) | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction: The Philosophical Quest for Liberation

Defining Mokṣa

• Mokṣa, a Sanskrit term, signifies "liberation" or "release."
• It is the ultimate goal in various Indian philosophical systems, particularly in Vedānta.
• Central to Mokṣa is liberation from the cycle of samsāra (birth and rebirth), leading to eternal bliss and union with the divine or self-realization.
• Mokṣa is often equated with terms like nirvāṇa (in Buddhist traditions) and kaivalya (in certain Yogic traditions).

Historical Evolution of Mokṣa in Vedānta

• Mokṣa's roots trace back to ancient Vedic texts, initially focusing on heavenly pleasures.
• Upanishads, foundational to Vedānta, expanded on Mokṣa, introducing the idea of union with Brahman, epitomized in "Aham Brahmasmi" from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad.
• Systematic Vedāntic schools like Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and Dvaita further refined and interpreted Mokṣa.
• Philosophers like Adi Śankarācārya, Rāmānuja, and Madhva played vital roles in shaping these interpretations.
• Historical records of saints and spiritual leaders offer glimpses of those who attained liberation.

Significance of Mokṣa in Indian Philosophy

• Mokṣa is one of the four principal aims of human life, known as Puruṣārthas, along with Dharma (duty), Artha (prosperity), and Kāma (pleasure).
• Positioned as the final and ultimate Puruṣārtha, representing the culmination of human existence.
• Mokṣa addresses the problem of suffering, central in Indian philosophy, offering freedom from suffering and human limitations.
• In Bhakti movements, the desire for Mokṣa transforms into passionate longing for divine union.
• Dialogues in epics like Mahābhārata, Ramayana, and texts like the Bhagavad Gītā emphasize Mokṣa's importance.
• Mokṣa provides an ethical framework, guiding virtuous living through adherence to moral principles, knowledge, and self-realization.

The Conceptual Framework of Mokṣa

The Fourfold Aims of Life (Puruṣārthas) and Mokṣa

• Dharma (Righteousness/Duty): Concerns moral duties and ethical living, ensuring societal order and harmony.
• Artha (Wealth/Prosperity): Symbolizes material prosperity and stability, emphasizing its importance while discouraging excessive materialism.
• Kāma (Pleasure/Desire): Encompasses human desires and emotions within ethical boundaries, including physical and ethereal pleasures.
• Mokṣa (Liberation): Represents the ultimate goal, spiritual enlightenment, and release from the cycle of birth and death, transcending the other three aims.

Mokṣa as Liberation from Samsāra

• Samsāra: The cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth, marked by suffering, and considered inescapable without enlightenment.
• Mokṣa: Liberation from Samsāra entails understanding the nature of reality, realizing one's true self (Ātman), and uniting with ultimate reality (Brahman).
• Means to Mokṣa: Practices like meditation, selfless service, devotion, and pursuit of knowledge are instrumental.
• Role of Guru: A spiritual guide, the Guru, is crucial for guidance on the path to liberation.

The Relationship Between Mokṣa and Other Puruṣārthas

• Interconnected Goals: Dharma, Artha, and Kāma are interrelated and influenced by one's spiritual aspirations, ultimately leading to Mokṣa.
• Balanced Approach: While Artha and Kāma are important, they should not overshadow Dharma, and the pursuit of Mokṣa is encouraged as the ultimate culmination of life.

The Ontological Foundations of Mokṣa

Comparison of Different Vedāntic Views on Mokṣa

• Advaita Vedānta: Advocates non-dualism, where Mokṣa is realizing the oneness of individual soul (Jīva) and universal soul (Brahman).
• Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta: Proposes qualified non-dualism, where Mokṣa is union with God while maintaining individual identity.
• Dvaita Vedānta: Embraces dualism, viewing Mokṣa as eternal service to the divine.

Nature of the Liberated State: Jīvanmukti vs Videhamukti

• Jīvanmukti: Liberation while alive, characterized by transcending suffering, acting without attachment, and equanimity.
• Videhamukti: Liberation after physical death, marking the soul's union with the divine.

The Reality of Bondage: The Nexus of Karma and Rebirth

• Karma: Law of action and reaction, with actions leading to corresponding results, shaping future lives.
• Rebirth: The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, driven by accumulated karma.
• Breaking the Cycle: Mokṣa is liberation from the cycle, attained through self-realization and spiritual practices.

Means to Mokṣa

Jñāna as a Direct Means

• Jñāna: Beyond mere knowledge, it signifies realization.
• Direct means to Mokṣa, dispelling ignorance, the root of bondage.
• Emphasized in Upanishads, where the seeker aims to know Brahman, as exemplified in "Tat Tvam Asi."

The Role of Karma and Bhakti: Integrative and Differentiating Perspectives

• Karma: Actions that purify or bind the soul, highlighting the importance of ethical living.
• Bhakti: Devotional love towards a deity as a path to liberation.
• Integrative Perspective: Karma and Bhakti work together, with ethical actions purifying the soul while fostering a loving connection with the divine.
• Differentiating Perspective: Some traditions view Jñāna as superior, with Karma and Bhakti as preparatory stages for spiritual realization.

Sadhana Chatuṣṭaya: The Fourfold Discipline for Mokṣa

• Sadhana Chatuṣṭaya: The foundational discipline comprising Viveka (discrimination), Vairagya (dispassion), Shamadi Shatka Sampatti (six-fold virtues), and Mumukṣutva (intense desire for liberation).

Guru and Śiṣya: The Teacher-Student Relationship in Achieving Mokṣa

• The Guru is a spiritual guide offering wisdom and guidance.
• The Śiṣya approaches with humility, dedication, and patience.
• Mutual respect and trust define this sacred relationship, exemplified in the story of Nachiketa and the Lord of Death in the Katha Upanishad.

Advaita Vedānta and Mokṣa: Śankara’s Perspective

Śankara's View on Mokṣa: Nirguna Brahman as Ultimate Reality

• Adi Śankarācārya, a significant philosopher, redefined Advaita Vedānta, emphasizing Nirguna Brahman as the ultimate reality, which lacks attributes.
• This concept is distinct from Saguna Brahman, which has attributes and represents personal deity forms.
• According to Śankara, the world is an illusion or Māyā, which conceals the true nature of Brahman.
• He posits that the individual soul (jīva) is fundamentally one with Brahman, with the distinction arising due to ignorance (avidyā).
• Mokṣa, as per Śankara, is the realization of this oneness, achieved through self-knowledge and meditation, with scriptures like the Upanishads guiding seekers.

Comparison of Advaita Vedānta with Other Schools

• Advaita Vedānta:
  • Ultimate reality: Nirguna Brahman.
  • World view: Illusory, a product of Māyā.
  • Path to Mokṣa: Knowledge of oneness with Brahman.
• Dvaita Vedānta:
  • Ultimate reality: Separate entities of God, soul, and world.
  • World view: Real and distinct from God.
  • Path to Mokṣa: Devotion and surrender to a personal God.
• Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta:
  • Ultimate reality: Brahman with attributes, souls, and world as its body.
  • World view: Real but dependent on Brahman.
  • Path to Mokṣa: Combination of knowledge, devotion, and surrender.

Mokṣa as Non-Duality: Axiomatic Realizations and Implications

• Mokṣa in Advaita Vedānta implies the realization of non-dualism, transcending dualities like joy and sorrow.
• It's not just intellectual understanding but direct experience of unity with Brahman.
• Implications include liberation from rebirth, freedom from worldly suffering, and living in constant bliss (ānanda).
• This state, known as Jīvanmukti, can be experienced while alive, shifting the focus from rituals to self-inquiry and meditation.

Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta and Mokṣa

Rāmānuja’s Interpretation

• Rāmānuja, an iconic philosopher of Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta, opposed the non-dualistic teachings of Adi Śankarācārya.
• He believed Brahman is both the efficient and material cause of the universe, possessing infinite auspicious qualities and devoid of negative attributes.
• Souls (jīvas) are real, distinct, yet dependent on Brahman, and worldly existence is real.

Mokṣa in Rāmānuja's View

• Mokṣa, according to Rāmānuja, involves achieving an eternal, intimate relationship with the supreme deity, Vishnu.
• It's about realizing one's eternal servitude and relationship with the divine, leading to freedom from the cycle of birth and death.
• Prapatti, an act of complete surrender to Lord Vishnu, is a direct means to Mokṣa.

Mokṣa in the Realm of Vaikuṇṭha: An Eternal Service to the Divine

• Vaikuṇṭha is the celestial abode of Lord Vishnu, free from the cycle of birth and death.
• Souls in Vaikuṇṭha enjoy eternal service to Vishnu, devoid of ego and individual desires, experiencing continuous divine bliss.
• Unlike Advaita's Mokṣa, it's not about merging into Brahman but relishing a personal relationship with the supreme deity.

Difference from Advaita’s Mokṣa

• Viśiṣṭādvaita's Mokṣa is a personal experience, centered on devotion and surrender, unlike Advaita's impersonal realization.
• Viśiṣṭādvaita sees worldly existence as real, in contrast to Advaita's view of it as illusory.

Dvaita Vedānta and Mokṣa – Madhva’s Dualistic Vision

The Eternal Distinction between Jīva and Brahman

• Dvaita Vedānta, founded by Madhvācārya, asserts an eternal distinction between the individual soul (Jīva) and the supreme entity (Brahman).
• Jīva is inherently dependent and subservient, while Brahman (Vishnu) is the supreme, independent force.

Mokṣa as Eternal Communion: Relishing the Divine Bliss

• In Dvaita Vedānta, Mokṣa is not about merging with the divine but experiencing eternal communion with Brahman (Vishnu).
• It involves realizing one's distinct identity and enjoying boundless bliss through serving and being in the divine presence.
• Bhakti, devotion, isn't just a means but an end in itself in Dvaita.

Dvaita’s Unique Standpoint

• Dvaita's clear distinction between Jīva and Brahman sets it apart from Advaita.
• Dvaita emphasizes devotion (Bhakti) over knowledge, eternal service, and joy in the divine presence, and the significance of realizing one's eternal, distinct identity.

Practical Implications of Mokṣa

Mokṣa and Ethics: How Liberation Informs Morality

• Dharma (righteousness) is crucial for pursuing Mokṣa, with Swadharma (one's own duty) guiding individuals.
• Ethical principles like non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possessiveness are essential for harmonious living and spiritual progress.

Societal Interpretations: How Various Indian Traditions Have Grappled with Mokṣa

• Different Indian traditions interpret Mokṣa uniquely, with varying emphasis on rituals, self-realization, and ethical living.

Modern Relevance: Mokṣa in Contemporary Thought and Spiritual Practices

• Mokṣa's pursuit remains relevant in today's world, influencing spiritual tourism, yoga, meditation, mindfulness practices, and contemporary gurus' teachings.
• Challenges include the fast-paced digital age and the rise of nihilism.

Digital Age and Mokṣa

• Modern technology facilitates spiritual teachings but also presents challenges in disconnecting from the digital world and connecting with oneself.

Critiques and Counterarguments

Analyzing Critiques from Non-Vedāntic Indian Schools

• Buddhism, Jainism, Sāṃkhya, and Mīmāṃsā offer critiques based on their own philosophies, challenging aspects of Vedānta.

Addressing Western Philosophical Challenges to the Concept of Mokṣa

• Materialism, existentialism, postmodernism, and empiricism pose challenges to the metaphysical concept of Mokṣa.

Internal Discrepancies: Criticisms Within the Vedānta Tradition

• Disagreements within Vedānta schools, such as Advaita vs. Dvaita, the role of Bhakti, efficacy of rituals, and the nature of Mokṣa, prompt debates.

Conclusion

Synthesizing the Complex Landscape of Mokṣa in Vedānta

• Mokṣa is a central concept in Vedānta, representing the ultimate human goal of spiritual liberation.
• Various interpretations, such as Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and Dvaita Vedānta, offer distinct perspectives on Mokṣa.
• Common themes include the cessation of the cycle of birth and death and the realization of one's true nature.

The Timeless Appeal of Mokṣa and Its Resonance Today

• The pursuit of Mokṣa remains relevant in modern society, addressing existential questions and offering spiritual guidance.
• Vedāntic principles continue to inspire contemporary spiritual movements and thought.

Future Directions for Study and Exploration in the Philosophy of Mokṣa

• Integration with modern science, comparative philosophy, environmental ethics, and the arts offer avenues for further exploration and understanding of Mokṣa's relevance in today's world.