Environment and Ecology: September 2023 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Leopard Sterilisation

Context 

The Maharashtra Government has made a recent decision to carry out sterilization procedures on leopards as part of their strategy to effectively control the leopard population within the state. This approach of sterilizing leopards has also been recommended by the forest department of Gujarat, specifically in and around the Gir National Park.

Need for Sterilizing Leopards

• 58 people died in Maharashtra from leopard-related causes in 2019–20 alone, which is more than half the 97 fatalities in 2010–18.
• In response to the escalating number of leopard-human conflicts, the need to protect both leopards and human communities and the burgeoning leopard population, Maharashtra has opted to sterilize leopards.
• The suggested sterilization program tries to resolve these issues while abiding by the rules and laws governing environmental preservation.

Concerns

• There are several reasons to be concerned about sterilizing leopards, including questions regarding their efficacy, the need for thorough scientific study, the need to acquire veterinary expertise, potential stress on leopards, problems with conventional procedures, and alternatives to contraception.
• Additionally, there is a focus on resolving disputes and securing community support for conservation initiatives.

Facts about Leopards

• Scientific Name: Panthera pardus.
• Smallest of the Big Cats (of the genus Panthera, which also includes the Tiger, Lion, Jaguar, Leopard, and Snow Leopard), the leopard is renowned for its ability to adapt to a range of settings.
• The leopard is a nocturnal mammal that hunts at night.
• It consumes lesser herbivore species that live within its range, including chital, hog deer, and wild boar.
• Leopards frequently experience melanism, a condition in which the animal's skin turns completely black, including its spots.
• A melanistic leopard, sometimes known as a black panther, is frequently misidentified as a separate species.

Habitat

• Sub-Saharan Africa, tiny portions of Western and Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast and East Asia are just a few of the regions where it can be found.
• The leopard species known as the Indian leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) is found throughout the Indian subcontinent.

Population in India

• According to the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change's most recent report, "Status of Leopards in India, 2018," there has been a "60% increase in the population count of leopards in India from 2014 estimates."
• The population of leopards was estimated to be at 8,000 in 2014; it is now 12,852.
• Madhya Pradesh has been estimated to have the most leopards (3,421), followed by Karnataka (1,783) and Maharashtra (1,690).

Threats

• poaching for the illicit trafficking in animal skins and organs.
• fragmentation and loss of habitat.
• Human-Leopard conflict

Conservation Status

• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
• CITES: Appendix-I
• Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule-I

Global Stocktake Report

Central Idea

• Amid the gathering of world leaders in New Delhi for the G-20 summit, the UN climate secretariat unveiled a ‘synthesis report’ summarizing progress made by nations towards the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement.
• Known as the ‘global stocktake,’ this report is a vital component of global climate action, assessing efforts to combat climate change every five years.

Understanding the ‘Global Stocktake’

(1) Origins and Purpose

• The ‘global stocktake’ is integral to the Paris Agreement, which commits countries to limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius and strive for a 1.5-degree target.
• Its primary aim is to periodically review and evaluate individual nations’ efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources.

(2) Influence on Climate Talks:

• The inaugural report, released this year, carries significant weight, shaping discussions at the upcoming 28th UN Climate Conference of Parties (COP) in Dubai in November.
• While countries have submitted their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for climate action, the stocktake encourages them to enhance their ambitions before the next NDCs in 2025.

Key Insights from the Report

(1) Overall Assessment:

• The 45-page synthesis report delivers 17 key findings that collectively convey that the world is falling short of its Paris Agreement targets. 
• However, it highlights a narrowing window of opportunity for countries to align their efforts.

(2) Echoing Previous Concerns:

• The report echoes concerns raised in the 2022 UN synthesis report, which analyzed the NDCs of 166 countries and found them inadequate to meet Paris Agreement goals.
• It reiterates the findings of the United Nations Emissions Gap Report, emphasizing the vast shortfall in reducing CO2 emissions compared to the Paris targets.

Crucial ‘Key Findings’

(1) Galvanized Global Response:

• The Paris Agreement has spurred countries to set climate goals and acknowledge the urgency of addressing the climate crisis.
• Governments must support the transition away from fossil fuels, ensuring it is equitable and inclusive.

(2) Ambitious Goals:

• Much greater ambition is needed to achieve global greenhouse gas emission reductions of 43% by 2030 and 60% by 2035, leading to net-zero CO₂ emissions by 2050.

(3) Renewable Energy Transition:

• Scaling up renewable energy is imperative, while unabated fossil fuels must be phased out rapidly.

(4) Environmental Conservation:

• Efforts to halt deforestation, reverse land degradation, and promote emission-reducing agricultural practices must be encouraged.

(5) Adaptation and Loss Management:

• Comprehensive risk management and support for impacted communities are essential for averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage due to climate change.

(6) Financial Commitment:

• Transparent adaptation reporting and the rapid scaling up of financial support are needed to align global financial flows with climate-resilient development.

Influence on Global Climate Discussion

• The global stocktake report serves as a foundational document for the upcoming UN Climate Conference of Parties (COP).
• It notably influenced the G20 Leaders Declaration, which officially acknowledged the substantial financial requirements for transitioning to a renewable energy economy.
• This acknowledgement sets the stage for intensified efforts, emphasizing the need for trillions of dollars to support climate action, renewable technologies, and the path to net-zero emissions by 2050.

E-Waste Management in India

Why in News?

The Indian Cellular and Electronics Association (ICEA) has released a comprehensive report titled 'Pathways to Circular Economy in the Indian Electronics Sector.'

• This report highlights the urgent need to rethink e-waste management and explore opportunities to harness its potential.
• The report suggests that this transformation could unlock an additional USD 7 billion market opportunity.

What are the Major Highlights of the Report?

• The E-Waste Landscape in India:
  • According to the ICEA report, e-waste management in India is predominantly informal, with approximately 90% of e-waste collection and 70% of recycling being managed by a competitive informal sector.
  • The informal sector excels at salvaging older electronic devices for spare parts and profitably carrying out repairs.
  • Industrial hubs like Moradabad specialize in processing printed circuit boards (PCBs) to extract valuable materials like gold and silver.
• Circular Economy Principles:
  • The report emphasizes the need to shift the outlook on e-waste management towards establishing a circular economy.
    • China serves as an example, targeting to use 35% of secondary raw materials in the manufacturing of new products by 2030, reflecting a circular economy approach.
  • Proposed Strategies for a Circular Economy in E-Waste: The ICEA report outlines several key strategies to usher in a circular economy for e-waste in India:
  • Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Collaboration between government bodies and private enterprises is essential to distribute the costs of setting up a reverse supply chain.
    • This complex endeavor involves collecting devices from users, erasing personal data, and channeling them for further processing and recycling.
  • Auditable Database: The creation of a transparent and auditable database of materials collected through the reverse supply chain process can enhance accountability and traceability.
  • Geographical Clusters: Establishing geographical clusters where discarded devices are gathered and dismantled can optimize the recycling process, making it more efficient and cost-effective.
  • Incentivizing 'High-Yield' Recycling Centers: Encouraging the development of high-yield recycling facilities can help maximize the value extraction from electronic products, including rare earth metals in semiconductors.
  • Promoting Repair and Product Longevity: Policy recommendations include encouraging repair and making products last longer.
    • This could involve supporting a user's right to repair, reducing the environmental burden of electronic waste.

What is the Status of E-Waste Management in India?

• About E-Waste:
  • Electronic waste (e-waste), is a generic term used to describe all types of old, end-of-life or discarded electrical and electronic equipment, such as household appliances, office information and communications equipment etc.
  • E-waste contains numerous toxic chemicals including metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, and nickel.
  • India currently ranks third among the largest generators of e-waste globally, behind only China and the US.
  • The volume of e-waste in India has witnessed a significant surge to 1.6 million tonnes in 2021-22.
  • The 65 cities in India generate more than 60% of the total generated e-waste, whereas 10 states generate 70% of the total e-waste.
• E-Waste Management in India:
  • In India, the management of electronic waste was addressed within the framework of the Environment and Forests Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Regulations of 2008.
  • In 2011, a significant notice pertaining to the E-waste (Management and Handling) Regulations of 2010, governed by the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, was issued.
    • Extended producer's responsibility (EPR) was its main feature.
  • E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 was enacted in 2017, with over 21 products (Schedule-I) included under the purview of the rule. It included Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) and other mercury containing lamps, as well as other such equipment.
  • In 2018, the 2016 rules underwent an amendment that broadened their scope to emphasize the promotion of authorization and product stewardship.
    • Product stewardship is a concept and approach that emphasizes the responsibility of producers, manufacturers, and other stakeholders for the entire life cycle of a product, from its creation to its disposal or recycling
  • Government of India notified E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 with a major aim to digitize the e-waste management process and enhance visibility.
    • It also restricts the use of hazardous substances (such as lead, mercury, and cadmium) in manufacturing electrical and electronic equipment that have an adverse impact on human health and the environment.

How can India Work Towards Reducing and Recycling E-Waste More Effectively?

• Formalizing E-waste Collection: There is a need to create a comprehensive regulatory framework for e-waste collection, incorporating mandatory registration and licensing of collection centers and recyclers to formalize and standardize the process.
• E-Waste Tax Credits for Manufacturers: Implementing a tax credit system that provides incentives to electronics manufacturers for designing products with extended lifespans and repairability features.
  • This approach aims to promote eco-friendly design practices while discouraging planned obsolescence.
• E-Waste ATMs: Installing E-Waste ATMs in public places, where individuals can deposit old electronic devices, and in return, receive small financial incentives or vouchers for public transportation or essential goods.
  • These ATMs could also feature educational displays to raise awareness about e-waste recycling.
• E-Waste Tracking and Certification: Establishing a blockchain-based system to track the entire lifecycle of electronic devices.
  • Each device could have a digital certificate that records its manufacturing, ownership, and disposal history.
  • This would make it easier to trace and hold responsible parties accountable for improper disposal.
• E-Waste Art and Awareness: Promoting awareness through art installations made from e-waste. Encouraging artists to create sculptures or exhibits in public spaces to visually depict the magnitude of the e-waste problem and raise awareness about proper disposal.

Global Push to Criminalize Ecocide

Why in News?

The controversial Maya train project in Mexico aims to link tourists with historic Maya sites, sparking concerns over its potential environmental and cultural impact.

• The debate surrounding this project brings into focus the concept of "ecocide" and the growing global movement to criminalize environmental destruction.

What is an Ecocide? 

• About: 
  • Ecocide, derived from Greek and Latin, translates to 'killing one's home' or 'environment'. 
  • Although there is currently no universally recognized legal description of ecocide, a group of lawyers convened by an NGO named Stop Ecocide Foundation in June 2021 crafted a definition that would place environmental devastation within the same realm as crimes against humanity. 
  • According to their proposal, ecocide is defined as "unlawful or reckless actions carried out with the awareness that there exists a substantial probability of causing severe and either extensive or enduring harm to the environment."
• Historical Context: 
  • In 1970, biologist Arthur Galston was the first to draw a connection between environmental devastation and genocide (which is recognised as an international crime).
    • He made this link when addressing the U.S. military's utilization of Agent Orange, an herbicide, during the Vietnam War. 
  • Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme also used this concept in a speech at the United Nations. 
    • He cautioned that uncontrolled industrialization could lead to irreversible harm to the environment.
  • In 2010, a British lawyer played a pivotal role by urging the United Nations' International Criminal Court (ICC) to officially acknowledge ecocide as an international crime.
    • Currently, the Rome Statute of the ICC addresses four major offenses: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression as a international crime. 
    • The provision related to war crimes is the sole statute that can hold a wrongdoer accountable for environmental destruction, but only if it is intentionally caused during times of armed conflict.

What is the Present Status of Ecocide Acknowledgment in India?

• India has neither signed nor ratified the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and has not expressed any official position on the proposal to criminalize ecocide at the international level.
  • However, India has ratified several international environmental treaties and conventions, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
  • India has also enacted various national laws and policies to protect and conserve its environment, such as the Environment Protection Act 1986, the Wildlife Protection Act 1972, and Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016 (CAMPA).
• While some Indian court judgments have casually used the term 'ecocide,' the concept has not been formally integrated into Indian law.
  • In the case of Chandra CFS and Terminal Operators Pvt. Ltd. v. The Commissioner of Customs and Ors 2015, the Madras High Court noted the continuous and unbridled activities of ecocide related to the removal of valuable timbers.
  • The T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad vs Union Of India & Ors 1995 case in the Supreme Court drew attention to the need to shift from an anthropocentric approach to an ecocentric approach for achieving environmental justice.

What are the Arguments in Favour of Criminalising Ecocide?

• Protecting the Environment as an End in Itself: Ecosystems are intricate networks of species and interactions that have evolved over millions of years. 
  • Protecting the environment as an end in itself recognizes the importance of preserving these ecosystems in their natural state to maintain their integrity and evolutionary potential.
  • Ecocide laws fill a gap in environmental protection, recognizing the environment as an entity worthy of safeguarding.
• Intergenerational Justice: Advocates argue that ecocide can be seen as accumulating a "biodiversity debt" that future generations must repay.
  • By recognizing ecocide as a crime, society acknowledges its obligation to leave a sustainable and habitable planet for posterity. 
• Climate Change Mitigation: Addressing ecocide through criminal law serves as a vital complement to international climate agreements by directly targeting the root causes of climate change. 
  • Large-scale deforestation and uncontrolled fossil fuel extraction, all considered as ecocidal activities.
  • Criminalizing ecocide adds a strong legal dimension to environmental protection, holding individuals and entities accountable for actions that harm the climate.
• Expanding Global Recognition and Legal Action: Ecocide is already considered a crime in 11 countries, with 27 more contemplating similar legislation.
  • Ecocide laws can also serve as powerful calls for justice, especially for low- and middle-income countries bearing the brunt of extreme weather events.
  • Small nations like Vanuatu and Barbuda are urging the ICC to classify environmental crimes as international law violations.

What are the Arguments Against Criminalising Ecocide? 

• Development vs. Environmental Protection: One key argument against criminalizing ecocide revolves around the tension between development and environmental protection.
  • Critics argue that defining ecocide may inadvertently pit development goals against environmental conservation.
  • For instance, the Great Nicobar Project in India faced criticism for potentially harming indigenous communities and biodiversity, while the government defended it as an initiative for "holistic development."
• Interference with Sovereignty: Some argue that criminalizing ecocide may infringe upon a nation's sovereignty.
  • Countries may view such laws as encroachments on their ability to manage their own environmental policies and resources, leading to resistance or non-compliance.
• Chilling Effect on Scientific Research: Scientists and researchers could be deterred from conducting studies that involve environmental manipulation or experimentation due to the fear of potential legal repercussions.
  • This could impede scientific progress and understanding of complex ecological systems.
• Efficacy and Enforcement Challenges: Critics question the effectiveness of criminalizing ecocide in deterring environmental harm.
  • They argue that existing environmental regulations, when enforced rigorously, can be more effective than creating a new criminal framework that may be challenging to enforce.

Way Forward

• Environmental Protection as a Fundamental Imperative: Whether ecocide is criminalized or not, the paramount objective should always be the protection and preservation of the environment. 
• Ecological Restoration Bonds: There is a need to introduce the concept of ecological restoration bonds.
• Companies involved in projects with significant environmental impact could be required to purchase these bonds as part of their licensing or permitting process.
• The funds from these bonds would be earmarked for ecological restoration in case of environmental harm, ensuring that the cost of restoration is borne by the responsible parties.
• Mandatory Environmental Education: There is a need to implement mandatory environmental education in schools and universities to raise awareness about environmental rights and responsibilities.
• This education would empower citizens to advocate for the environment and engage in discussions surrounding ecocide.

Marine Sand Extraction

Context

Approximately six billion tonnes of sand are extracted annually from the world’s oceans, causing irreversible damage to benthic life, according to a new global data platform called Marine Sand Watch.

What is Benthic Life?

Benthic life refers to organisms that live on or near the bottom of aquatic environments, such as oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. These organisms are adapted to life on the seabed or riverbed and play crucial roles in the ecosystem, including decomposing organic matter and providing food for other aquatic species.

Impact of Sand Extraction on Benthic Life

Examples of the impact of Coastal Sand Mining on Indian Coasts

Preventive measures taken

Some countries — including Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Cambodia — have banned marine sand export in the last 20 years, while others lack any legislation and /or effective monitoring programmes.

Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach, including

• Reducing Sand Consumption: Promoting sand-efficient construction practices.
• Taxation and Regulation: Implementing taxes and regulations on sand extraction.
• Alternative Materials: Exploring alternatives to sand in construction, such as recycling concrete or using filler materials like construction waste.
• Community Empowerment: Involving local communities in decision-making, particularly those downstream or reliant on sand resources.
• Integrated Regional Management: Coordinating sand resource management between offshore regulators, coastal communities, and upstream river basins.

Legal Mechanisms

• Sand is categorized as a “minor mineral” under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulations) Act, 1957, and its control lies with the State Governments. The primary sources of sand are rivers and coastal areas, and its demand has surged due to India’s construction and infrastructure development activities.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change has issued “Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines 2016” to promote environmentally friendly sand mining practices.
• The International Seabed Authority (ISA), governed by a UN treaty, regulates mineral exploration and extraction. India, as a party to the treaty, has exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin spanning over 75,000 sq. km.

About Marine Sand Watch

It is a global data platform developed by GRID-Geneva, part of the UN Environment Programme. It monitors and tracks sediment extraction activities in the world’s marine environments, including sand, clay, silt, gravel, and rock dredging. It uses Automatic Identification System signals from vessels and Artificial Intelligence to identify dredging operations.

Forest Conservation and Tribal Rights in Northeast India

Context

• On August 22, the Mizoram Assembly unanimously passed a resolution opposing the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, “to protect the rights and interest of the people of Mizoram”.

Why are the Northeast states opposing the amendment?

• The amendment allows the diversion of forest land for roads, railway lines or “strategic linear projects of national importance and concerning national security” within 100 km of India’s international borders or lines of control, without a forest clearance under the Forest (Conservation) Act (FCA) 1980.
• Most of India’s Northeast falls in this 100 km range.
• Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Sikkim are opposing the FCA.

Grant of FCA Clearances

• Special Constitutional protections – Article 371A for Nagaland and 371G for Mizoram – prohibit the application of any law enacted by Parliament that impinges on Naga and Mizo customary law and procedure, and ownership and transfer of land and its resources.
• Such laws can be extended to these States only if their Legislative Assemblies decide thus in a resolution.
• Nagaland extended the application of the FCA to government forests and such other forests and Wildlife Sanctuaries under the control of the State Government.
• Government forests make up only 2.71% of the State’s Recorded Forest Area.
• Mizoram Union Territory became a State with the Constitution (Fifty Third Amendment) Act 1986, adding Article 371G to the Constitution.
• It stipulated that all Central Acts in force before 1986 are extended to the State, including the FCA.
• Moreover, the powers of the Autonomous District Councils in the three Sixth Scheduled areas in Mizoram don’t extend to reserved forests.
• So the FCA covers 84.53% of forest areas that are notified forests, and 6,630 ha have thus far received FCA clearance.
• The FCA is applicable in the rest of Northeast: in Meghalaya and Tripura, the Sixth Schedule Areas within these States, and in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Manipur.
• Arunachal Pradesh ranked first among these States in FCA clearance (21,786.45 ha), followed by Tripura (9,051 ha), Assam (5,261 ha), Manipur (3,604 ha), Sikkim (2,902 ha), and Meghalaya (807 ha).

FCA 1980 vis-à-vis the Northeast

• In 1996, the Supreme Court expanded the term “forest land” in the FCA in the Godavarman case to “not only include ‘forest’ as understood in the dictionary sense, but also any area recorded as forest in the Government record irrespective of the ownership” called as the “deemed forest”, thus extending the FCA to unclassed forests.
• These are recorded forests but not notified as forests.
• More than half of the Northeast is Recorded Forest Area (RFA).
• Of this, 53% are unclassed forests controlled by individuals, clans, village councils or communities, and governed by customary law and procedures.
• The remainder is notified forest controlled by the State Forest Departments.
• RFA ranges from 34.21% in Assam to 82.31% in Sikkim with Mizoram having 35.48%, Meghalaya 42.34%, Nagaland 53.01%, Arunachal Pradesh 61.55%, Manipur 78.01% and Tripura 60.02%.
• Of these, unclassed forests range from nil in Sikkim to 97.29% in Nagaland, with 15.47% in Mizoram, 33.43% in Assam, 42.96% in Tripura, 75.67% in Manipur and 88.15% in Meghalaya.
• The apex court’s 1996 order brought unclassed forests under the FCA’s purview everywhere except in Nagaland.
• There are also forests outside RFA, neither recorded nor surveyed: 38.5% of the cover in Assam; 29% in Nagaland; and 1.5% in Mizoram.

FRA 2009 vis-à-vis the Northeast

• In the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act (FRA) 2006, “forest land” includes:
  • unclassified forests,
  • undemarcated forests,
  • existing or deemed forests,
  • protected forests,
  • reserved forests,
  • Sanctuaries and National Parks.
• These States can take suo motu cognisance of the existing rights and obtain the concerned Gram Sabha approvals for issuing titles.
• The Ministry of Tribal Affairs can also issue legally enforceable directions under Section 12 of the FRA, paving the way for this.
• But none of the Northeast States have implemented FRA except for Assam and Tripura.

FRA compliance under FCA

• States can formulate and take legal measures to ensure mandatory fulfillment of the FRA before recommending a forest diversion proposal, and ensuring Gram Sabha consent before handing over forest land.
• The Ministry of Tribal Affairs can also issue legally enforceable directions under the FRA, or even enact a separate law, to recognise and settle forest rights when forests are diverted for other purposes and forest-dwellers are relocated, as forest rights fall squarely within its Business Rules.

Invasive Alien Species

Why in News?

A recent study has revealed that the native vegetation and biodiversity in the Gulf of Mannar are under threat from an alien invasive plant, Prosopis chilensis.

• In addition, the coral reef has been destroyed in several places despite being outlawed for industrial purposes, and human settlements have impacted some islands.

What are Invasive Species?

• About:
  • An invasive species is an organism that is not indigenous, or native, to a particular area and causes harm to the native species.
  • They are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.
  • They can be introduced to an area by ship ballast water, accidental release, and most often, by people.
• About Prosopis Chilensis:
  • The Chilean mesquite (Prosopis chilensis (Molina) Stuntz) is a small to medium-sized legume tree and has a shallow and spreading root system.
  • It is a common ruderal weed, either growing singly or in groups
  • It is found in arid and semi-arid regions with ground water of between 3 and 10 m below the surface.
  • It is a drought-resistant plant native to South American countries namely Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru.
• International Instruments and Programmes on Invasive Species:
  • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):
    • It was one of the key agreements adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
    • The Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biodiversity (1992) had also recognised the biological invasion of alien species of plants as the second-worst threat to the environment after habitat destruction.
  • Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) or Bonn Convention (1979):
    • It is an intergovernmental treaty that aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range.
    • It also aims to control or to eliminate already present invasive alien species.
  • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES):
    • It is an international agreement adopted in 1975 that aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
    • It also considers the problems of invasive species when it is involved in trade and threatens the survival of live animals or plants.
  • Ramsar Convention (1971):
    • The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
    • It also addresses the environmental, economic and social impact of invasive species on wetlands within their jurisdictions and to take account of the methods of control and solutions for combating invasive species.

Red sand Boa

Why in News?

Recently, a report by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)-India titled 'Illegal Trade of Red Sand Boa in India 2016-2021' has exposed the trade of red sand boa.

• This alarming revelation underscores the pressing concern about the illegal trade of Red Sand Boas and the urgency for conservation efforts.

What are the Key Highlights of the Report?

• The report documents a total of 172 incidents of seizures involving red sand boas between 2016 and 2021, revealing the alarming extent of illegal trade.
• Illegal trade spans 18 Indian states, 1 Union Territory, and 87 districts; Maharashtra and UP record the highest incidents.
  • Maharashtra dominates with 59 cases, including urban areas like Pune, Thane, Mumbai Suburban.
  • Uttar Pradesh closely follows 33 incidents, often near Nepal's border in districts like Bahraich, and Lakhimpur-Kheri.
• Social media, especially YouTube, aids illegal trade, with 200 sales-promoting videos in 2021.
• The report's findings underscore the urgent need for conservation efforts to prevent the further decline of the red sand boa population and protect India's biodiversity.

What are the Key Facts About Red Sand Boa?

• About:
  • The Red Sand Boa (Eryx johnii), commonly called the Indian Sand Boa, is a non-venomous species.
  • It is a primarily reddish-brown and thick-set snake that grows to an average length of 75 cm.
  • Unlike most snakes, the tail is almost as thick as the body and gives the reptile the appearance of being "double-headed".
  • The Red Sand Boa is the largest of the sand boa in the world. Nocturnal and spends the majority of its time under the ground.
• Distribution:
  • Found in the whole of India excluding North-east states and North-Bengal; also not found in Indian islands.
• Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Near Threatened
  • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Appendix II.
  • Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972: Schedule IV.
• Threats to Red Sand Boa:
  • Expansion of human settlements and activities.
  • Demand upsurge in pet trade, as well as for use in black magic.
  • Poached for perceived medicinal benefits.