Indira Gandhi Era - 3 | Post Independence History for UPSC Mains PDF Download

Indo-Pak War, 1971

The Indo-Pak War of 1971, followed by the liberation of Bangladesh, stands as a significant political, military, and diplomatic triumph for India. This conflict transpired from December 3, 1971, until the fall of Dhaka on December 16, marking a short 13-day war, and the latter date is celebrated annually as Vijay Diwas.

The root causes of the war traced back to India's independence. In June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted to secede from India, and a referendum on July 7, 1947, favored joining Pakistan. Consequently, on August 15, 1947, East Pakistan became a reality.

In the 1970s, the internal crisis in Pakistan escalated. East and West Pakistan witnessed divergent results in the general elections, with Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto winning in the west, and Mujib-ur-Rehman's Awami League emerging victorious in the east.

East Pakistan, primarily comprising the Bengali population, felt marginalized by their West Pakistani counterparts, who were perceived as the ruling elite. In response to this treatment, protests against the leadership in West Pakistan began. However, the West Pakistani authorities were reluctant to acknowledge these grievances and rejected the proposed federation by the Awami League.

Instead of seeking to resolve the crisis and maintain peace, the Pakistan army arrested Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman and initiated a campaign of terror in East Pakistan. In the face of their leader's arrest, the people decided to fight for liberation from this oppressive environment, commencing the struggle to free 'Bangladesh' from Pakistan. Pakistan accused India of conspiring with both East and West Pakistan to dismantle the country. The USA and China provided support to Pakistan, while Indira Gandhi openly backed East Pakistan and opened the eastern border.

Indira Gandhi made substantial efforts to garner support from the US and other Western nations to address the East Pakistan crisis and the associated refugee problem. However, her endeavors were overshadowed by the self-interests of the US, the UK, and other Western powers. This crisis turned South Asia into a Cold War theater, with Pakistan supported by the US and India backed by the USSR.

The United States firmly stood by Pakistan, extending moral, political, economic, and material support. The US perceived Pakistan as crucial in preventing Soviet influence in South Asia. Pakistan had close ties with both the US and China. The US feared that an Indian invasion of Pakistan would lead to total Soviet dominance in the region, jeopardizing the global position of the US and its new ally, China. President Nixon encouraged Jordan and Iran to supply military aid to Pakistan and urged China to increase its arms deliveries to Pakistan, albeit in limited quantities. The Nixon administration also ignored reports of the "genocidal" activities of the Pakistani military in East Pakistan.

In response to these developments, India entered into a 20-year "Treaty of Peace and Friendship" with the Soviet Union in August 1971. This treaty ensured Soviet support for India in case of future third-party aggression. However, tensions between the two wings of Pakistan continued to escalate. By late November 1971, India was prepared for war, and full-scale hostilities erupted on December 3, 1971, when Pakistani bombers targeted Indian airfields along the western border.

Strategy of War

On the evening of December 3, 1971, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) executed a surprise pre-emptive strike on eleven airfields in north-western India, including Agra. This preemptive strike, known as Operation Chengiz Khan, drew inspiration from the success of Israel's Operation Focus in the Arab-Israeli Six-Day War. However, it met with limited success due to the scarcity of aircraft.

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi addressed the nation via radio that same evening, characterizing the airstrikes as a declaration of war against India. In response, the Indian Air Force launched retaliatory airstrikes, which escalated into massive air attacks the following morning. This marked the official commencement of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, prompting Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to order the immediate mobilization of troops and the initiation of a full-scale invasion of Pakistan.

This involved Indian forces coordinating extensive air, sea, and land offensives on Pakistan from multiple fronts. The primary Indian objective in the east was to capture Dacca, while in the west, it aimed to prevent Pakistan from encroaching on Indian territory. India successfully managed the challenges posed by the United States in the Bay of Bengal by utilizing the support of the USSR navy, as mandated under the Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1971. India effectively handled the threats from the US, UK, and China with the involvement of the USSR's military power and its role in the United Nations Security Council.

Simla Agreement, 1972

Bangladesh achieved independence through India's declaration of a unilateral ceasefire. Subsequently, on July 2, 1972, the Simla Agreement was signed between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan. This agreement transcended being merely a peace treaty to address the aftermath of the 1971 war, involving the withdrawal of troops and the exchange of Prisoners of War (PoWs). It can be viewed as a comprehensive blueprint for fostering harmonious relations between India and Pakistan. Its purpose was to establish lasting peace, friendship, and cooperation between the two nations. Under this agreement, both countries committed to resolving conflicts and confrontations experienced in the past through peaceful means. The agreement included a set of guiding principles mutually agreed upon by both nations, which emphasized:

• Respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
• Non-interference in each other's internal affairs.
• Respect for each other's unity.
• Political independence.
• Sovereign equality.
• Peaceful resolution through bilateral approaches.

Notable principles also included mutual commitment to resolving issues through direct bilateral approaches, promoting people-to-people interactions, upholding the inviolability of the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir (an important Confidence-Building Measure), and maintaining peace. India has consistently adhered to the Simla Agreement in its relations with Pakistan.

Analysis of Simla Agreement

The Indian negotiators, at the time, failed to recognize that diplomatic treaties, unsupported by military power, may hold little value. They did not involve military leaders in security policy planning. While Indira Gandhi demonstrated herself as a capable war leader, her statesmanship was somewhat lacking.

During the Simla Agreement, India acknowledged Kashmir as a 'dispute' and accorded equal status to Pakistan by permitting it to retain land occupied in Jammu and Kashmir. This decision laid the foundation for future Kargil-like adventures. All this occurred when India held the upper hand, and Kashmir was not the primary issue in the 1971 War. Indira Gandhi was influenced by euphoria and placed trust in Bhutto. In the end, all that remained was an empty promise from Bhutto, leading to subsequent breaches of the accord, such as cross-border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir and the Kargil War in 1999.

Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace

On August 9, 1971, the Republic of India and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics signed a significant agreement in New Delhi, widely known as the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship. This landmark treaty, spanning twenty years, served as a vital safeguard for India's sovereignty and territorial integrity, deterring external aggression while enhancing regional security and global peace. It was initially signed for a duration of 20 years but was later extended for an additional 20 years in 1991. However, the course of events changed dramatically with the August 1991 coup in Moscow, leading to the dissolution of the USSR. As a result, a new treaty was negotiated and signed in 1993.

JP Movement

Jaya Prakash Narayan, affectionately known as JP or 'Loknayak,' was a prominent figure in India's struggle for independence and continued to be active in political and social spheres after independence. JP remains an enduring symbol in discussions about national emergencies and the resilience of Indian democracy. He was a committed Gandhian and a staunch advocate of socialism. In his book 'Why Socialism,' he presented arguments for implementing socialism in India. His analysis of India's socio-economic conditions emphasized the following:

• Social Inequality: JP contended that rampant inequality within society, including disparities in status, culture, opportunity, and the highly disproportionate distribution of property and essential resources, was the primary cause of social distress.

• Unequal Wealth Distribution: He criticized the unequal distribution of wealth and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few.

To address these anomalies and promote socialism in Indian society, JP initiated a movement. The Jaya Prakash Narayan Movement, also known as the 'Bihar Movement,' began in 1974 when students in Bihar rallied under JP's leadership. This movement was inspired by student protests in Gujarat earlier in 1974. Both Bihar and Gujarat were governed by the Congress party, so these protests had a significant impact on state and central politics.

In Gujarat, protests began in January 1974 against rising food prices, cooking oil costs, and other essential commodities, as well as increasing corruption. Opposition parties joined the student protests, leading to the imposition of President's rule in the state and the call for fresh elections. These elections, held in June 1975, resulted in the Congress party's defeat.

Inspired by the success in Gujarat, students in Bihar also began protesting against escalating prices, food shortages, corruption, unemployment, and more. The students invited JP Narayan to lead the movement, and he accepted on the condition that the protests would remain non-violent and extend beyond the state, carrying a national appeal. He called for a 'Total Revolution' (Sampooran Kranti) against corruption, economic crises, inflation, and other issues.

The movement evolved into a national protest against Indira Gandhi's government. It gained support from various sections of society, including students, the middle class, traders, and a segment of the intelligentsia. This movement culminated in a massive political rally, one of the largest ever held in the capital of India, as thousands marched towards the Parliament. Major opposition parties like Congress (O), Bhartiya Jan Sangh, and the Socialist Party also supported JP.

However, the movement's fervor began to wane by the end of 1974 due to a lack of organizational structure and its failure to attract rural and urban poor. The movement's methods, which were extra-constitutional and undemocratic, contributed to its decline.

JP was sometimes criticized for his ideas and the politics of mass protests. Indira Gandhi believed that the movement was a personal opposition to her. The movement aimed to force the government to resign.

The final blow came on June 25, 1975, when JP organized a gherao, demanding the resignation of Indira Gandhi. In response, Indira declared a state of emergency the following morning. This move stunned the nation, marking the end of the movement, with several prominent leaders imprisoned.

National Emergency Declaration

On June 26th, 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, following the counsel of Indira Gandhi, proclaimed a National Emergency in India. The authority for this declaration was vested in Article 352 of the Indian Constitution.

Factors Leading to the Emergency

During the years leading up to the declaration of the National Emergency, India experienced a series of internal and external challenges. These included internal political conflicts, rising corruption, economic and food crises, and tensions between the government and the judiciary. This period was marked by one-party dominance, leading to concerns about the personalization of politics. Public grievances, stemming from issues such as unemployment, corruption, low industrial growth, and monsoon failures, fueled dissatisfaction among the masses. Additionally, the rise of Marxist movements, which rejected parliamentary politics in favor of violent means to overthrow the government, added to the tumult. Various groups, including students, employees, farmers, and intellectuals, initiated protests. Simultaneously, Indira Gandhi faced legal troubles, with her election being invalidated by the Allahabad High Court, barring her from contesting elections for six years. This turmoil within the party and nationwide protests, including a Satyagraha led by Jaya Prakash Narayan, shifted the political mood against the Congress party.

Implementation of the Emergency

In an effort to regain control and restore order, Indira Gandhi advised President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed to declare a state of Emergency on June 26, 1975. Once declared, the Emergency concentrated power in the hands of the central government, contrary to the principles of cooperative federalism. The government was granted the authority to curtail fundamental rights, turning the political landscape into an extraordinary condition where regular democratic politics could not function. During this period, the judiciary and the media bore the brunt of these excesses, as the Constitution was subverted and proclamations and ordinances escaped judicial review. The media was heavily censored, and the Fundamental Rights granted by the Constitution were severely suppressed. Indira Gandhi even amended laws to retroactively overturn the Allahabad High Court's verdict, preventing judicial intervention. Many opposition leaders were arrested during the Emergency.

Conflict with the Judiciary

Despite the expectation that the judiciary would act as a safeguard against executive overreach, the judiciary's actions during the Emergency disappointed the public. The Supreme Court's judgment, in particular, undermined the notion of fundamental rights, as it asserted that the Right to Life did not persist during the Emergency. The Supreme Court even accepted the Attorney General's argument that actions like shooting a person or arresting a Supreme Court judge under orders of a superior would be considered legal during the Emergency, without any legal recourse. This led to a loss of trust in the judiciary and resulted in the 44th Amendment to the Constitution in 1978, which limited the President's power to suspend Article 21.

Forced Sterilization

During the Emergency, civil liberties were suspended, and Sanjay Gandhi, the son of Indira Gandhi, introduced a five-point program that included family planning as a primary focus. Reports suggested that in some areas, police cordoned off villages and forced young men into sterilization procedures, marked by vulgarity, cruelty, and brutality. Between June 25, 1975, and March 1977, an estimated 11 million men and women were sterilized, often against their will, with an additional 1 million women receiving intrauterine devices (IUDs). These sterilizations were carried out under a combination of compulsion and persuasion, with an emphasis on compulsion. The procedures were performed in a hasty and unhygienic manner, with no follow-up care, leading to subsequent infections and fatalities. The public outrage over forced sterilizations resulted in nationwide riots, prompting Indira Gandhi to halt the campaign. This episode was a significant factor in her defeat in the 1977 general elections.

Jail Bharo Andolan 

Jail Bharo Andolan, commonly known as the "Fill the Jails Movement," serves as a protest strategy in which volunteers willingly get arrested to draw attention to a particular cause. Typically, these protests are organized peacefully. During the JP movement, led by Jayaprakash Narayan against the corrupt practices and autocratic rule of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, a significant and peaceful demonstration was organized. Narayan called for a satyagraha and rally, demanding Gandhi's resignation on June 25, 1975. To maintain control of the situation, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, on the advice of Indira Gandhi, declared a state of emergency on June 26, 1975.

This period witnessed a series of arrests as fundamental rights were suspended, and individuals opposing the government were detained or arrested without the right to appeal. Many prominent leaders and media figures, including JP Narayan, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, LK Advani, George Fernandes, and Morarji Desai, were among those arrested.

Raj Narain Case 

Raj Narain, a socialist politician, was defeated by Indira Gandhi in the 1971 general election in the Rae Bareilly parliamentary constituency of Uttar Pradesh. Under the case of 'State of Uttar Pradesh Vs. Raj Narain,' he filed a petition challenging Gandhi's election on the grounds that she had misused government resources and machinery during her campaign, gaining an unfair advantage. On June 12, 1975, Justice Jagmohan Lai Sinha found her guilty of misusing government resources for her election campaign. The court declared her election "null and void" and barred her from contesting any election for six years.

Since she was no longer a Member of Parliament, she could not continue as Prime Minister. Therefore, Justice Sinha stayed the judgment for 20 days to allow the Congress party to elect a successor to the post of Prime Minister. As she was the dominant figure in the party, the Congress party struggled to find a replacement. In response to the opposition's call for her immediate resignation, Mrs. Gandhi requested a "complete and absolute" stay of the judgment, which would allow her to continue voting in Parliament. The court granted her the stay, causing significant controversy among the opposition. Buoyed by the JP movement, a state of emergency was imposed in the name of maintaining national internal security.

Analysis of Emergency The imposition of Emergency is a state action by the government or ruler of a nation that puts civil liberties, human rights, opposition to the ruling party, freedom of the press, constitutional rights, fundamental rights, freedom, justice, and equality under threat and curbs them. Indira Gandhi's proclamation of Emergency stunned the nation and the world, affecting millions of lives. With a single act, the largest democracy on Earth descended to the level of a dictatorship. Indian democracy remained suspended for 21 months (1975-1977), during which even the Right to Life under Article 21 was suspended. This dark period also eroded trust in the Indian judiciary, particularly in the violation of Habeas Corpus rights. Indira Gandhi's government seized the freedom that Indians had fought for decades to secure.

In May 1977, a commission of inquiry, headed by Justice J. P. Shah, a retired Supreme Court judge, was appointed by the Janata government to investigate allegations of abuse of authority, malpractices, and actions taken during the Emergency. The Shah Commission produced three reports based on witness testimonies, which were accepted by the government. This led to the Constitutional (Forty-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, which enhanced constitutional provisions to prevent the misuse of emergency powers.

Despite the dark phase of the Emergency, it strengthened Indian democracy in some ways. The Indian populace became more aware of their rights, and the era of coalition governments emerged a few years later. Coalition governments offered advantages by countering autocratic rule and the monopoly of a single major party. The Emergency period seemed to instill a deeper appreciation for democracy among the people.