Cultural Regions - 2 | Geography Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Major Cultural Regions of the World

The earth is characterised by large number of cultural traits and complexes. Many cultural geographers have attempted to divide the world into ‘world civilizations’, ‘cultural realms’, ‘major cultural regions’, ‘macrocultures’ or ‘cultural worlds’.

They usually deal with most general form of regions - the realm. This is done to get away from possible misuse of the regional concept, and to emphasize the scale involved. The first attempt to delimit world cultural regions was made by Russell and Kniffen in 1951. They first recognised different cultural groups and then related to their areas. Each area was identified as cultural region and its boundaries were delimited. They identified seven regions and a transitional area. Each cultural region was regarded as the outcome of a long evolution of human and land relations. However, the most widely accepted scheme of cultural regionalisation has been proposed by Jan O. M. Broek and John W. Webb (1967). On the bases of size and importance, they grouped the cultural realms of the world into two broad categories - major and minor cultural realms. Among major cultural realms they include occidental (Western European), Main Islamic (North African-South-West Asian; Arab-Persian), Indie (Indian, Hindu) and East Asia (Sinitic). Among minor cultural realms they include South East Asia, Meso-Africa (Negro-Africa) and Southern Pacific (Melanesian- Polynesian).

The above schemes of regionalisation of cultural patterns of the whole world into cultural realms or regions are not applicable in the contemporary context. Those regionalisation shemes were done over forty years ago. They were based on the then existing cultural patterns. Since then several significant changes have occurred in patterns of cultures on earth’s surface. For example, Broek and Webb identification of East Europe with Soviet Union (based on ideological and political contiguity) is no longer relevant. Today, due to break up of Soviet Union and subsequent incorporation of many east European countries into the EU and increasing interconnection between them, one can comfortably think of the entire 

Europe as a cultural region. Similarly, North Africa was clubbed in Arab realm (West Asia). However, it should be known that after the formation of African Union, there is a rise in feelings of pan-Africanism. Hence, North Africa is as much a part of Africa as that of the Arab World. In view of this,North Africa has been considered here as a separate cultural region.

The contemporary world can be divided into fourteen cultural regions on the bases of a common language, presence of a strong belief in some common religion or philosophy; a social practice or a shared political or economic system or a combination of all.

These regions differ to a great deal from each other in their size, population, degree of development and potentials. Though boundaries of cultural regions on map are thin lines but these are actually bounded not by lines but by broad transitional zones. In the following sections we will be describing contents of cultures of these regions and their areal expressions. 

1. South Asia: South Asia consists of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Shri Lanka. Some people include Afghanistan into this region. Together they are referred to as Indie realm/region. It is the seat of one of the most ancient civilizations - Harappa and Mohanjodaro, located mainly in the Indus river valley. The region is characterised by remarkable diversity in physical/geographical make up as well as socio-cultural composition. It is linguistically the most diverse region of the world. Its populations belong to different racial stock-Proto-Austroloid, Negroid, Mediterranean, Caucasoid and Mongoloids, etc. Ethnically, the region is characterised by tremendous diversity. The region is inhabited by people of different faiths - Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs, Parsisand the beliefs and practices by the tribal population. The society is highly stratified along caste line. There is a significant tribal element that generally inhabits the isolated and semi-isolated mountains, hills, forests and plateaus. The plain areas are mostly inhabited by caste people.
2. South East Asia: This region consists of mainland, peninsula and island countries. There is also a contrast between highland and plains as well as between coastal and maritime. This is an extremely diverse and interesting region. The region carries a record of very ancient occupation, several religious infusions, Chinese and European settlements, and political fragmentation.The region as a whole is characterised by linguistic diversity - Cham, Mon-Khmer, Malay, Papuan, Burman, Karen, Vietnamese, Tai, Miao-Yao, etc. The people of this region practice Islam, Buddhism and Christianity. The predominant race is mongoloid. The region displays enormous ethnic diversity - Chinese, Malaya, Burmese, Karan, Rohingya and Mon-Khmer. The region is dominated by agriculture - both subsistence crop and commercial plantation. The region has been a cultural low pressure area as the region has been recipient rather than donor of cultural traits. Due to tremendous diversities of populations and ethnic and political fragmentation, the region is referred by some scholars as a kind of ‘Asian Balkans’. 
3. East Asia: This is the area of Chinese or Sinitic civilization with its variants in Korea and Japan. China has a great cultural history. It is a world in itself. It had barricaded itself from the rest of the world since the Communists gained control in 1949. However, since 1970’s China has been opening slowly. By virtue of its economic performance and sheer size, is has acquired a great power status.
   Japan is a highly industrialised and urbanised island country. Despite smaller size and shortage of raw materials, it is one of the economic powers of the world on account of social stability, managerial acumen and industriousness of its people. It imports raw materials from the world over and exports finished products throughout the world. Japan’s modem political and economic history is unique. Its achievements are unparalleled. Its ability to fuse Asian and Occidental strains assures its uniqueness in cultural regions of the world. In terms of language and culture Japan is profoundly Japanese but in terms of economic and political systems it has imitated the occidental. North Korea is characterised by the predominance of agriculture in its economy. Its political system is authoritarian. On the other hand, South Korean is a democratic and highly industrialised capitalist country. Despite political enmity and ideological divide there are deep underlying currents of cultural and historical unity between the two. 
4. West Asia: It is also known as Arab-Persian, dry or Islamic realm. However, it incorporates significant non-Arab, wet and non-lslamic component. Its location has always given it strategic significance either as a bridge or as a barrier between different cultures. It is not a homogeneous region. Internal diversities are pronounced. This diversity has resulted in conflicts and tensions between countries of the region. The region remains politically unstable. The basic unifying cultural traits of this region are predominance of religious tradition of Islam and speakers of Arabic, Persian and Turkic languages and similarity of geographical conditions (i.e. dry - arid/semi-arid climate) and of mode of life. Since 1973, due to rise in prices of energy resources (i.e. oil and natural gas) many countries of the region have become material rich. Of late, they have been investing in social sectors and aim to diversifying their economy. 
5. Central Asia: Earlier the region was a part of erstwhile Soviet Union. After the breakup of the Soviet Union many countries of central Asia got independent. While Soviet influence is still visible in landscape and society. But the region is in process of transformation towards acquiring a new identity. Important cultural traits of the region are - predominance of Islam as a heritage and nomadism, the influence of Persian and Turkic and Chinese culture, racially belong to mostly Mongoloid and Caucasoid groups.
6. Russia: Territorially it is the largest country. It is different from Europe (i.e. Western Christianity) as it is considered as successor to Byzantine-Eastern Christianity. The Marxist ideology swept the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1917 when the first communist state came into existence. As a communist state, it was one of the most powerful and influential countries during the most parts of 20th century. The breakup of Soviet Union in 1991 led to many political and economic reforms. Many countries came into existence in Europe and Central Asia after breaking away from erstwhile Soviet Union. The distinct cultural characteristics of Russia - the predominance of Christianity faith and speakers of Russian language, and existence of ethnic diversity. 
7. Europe: Many cultural geographers divide Europe into two distinct cultural regions - West and East Europe. They argue that West Europe has remained politically and economically akin to the United States. Compared to Eastern Europe it has remained more industrialised and urbanised. The region is inhabited by protestant Christians. The region has impacted politically, economically and culturally the rest of the world for many centuries. It has remained a dominant theme in the world history over the past several centuries. It has exported political system and religious system to other regions of the world. On the other hand, though physically East Europe has been a part of Europe continent, it was under the ideological and political influence of the erstwhile Soviet Union till 1990. Iron Curtain was used to signify ideological boundary between East Europe (under the influence of communism) and West Europe (under the influence of capitalism). Traces of Soviet and communism are still found. During the much part of the 20th Century it was politically unstable. Therefore, it was referred to as shatter belt.
   But since the breakup of erstwhile Soviet Union and eastward expansion of European Union, the east Europe is getting integrated politically and economically to the West Europe. As a result the entire Europe is in the process of acquiring a distinct cultural identity. Some of the distinct cultural characteristics of the unified Europe are the dominant religious tradition of Christianity, speak one of numerous Indo-Aryan language, majority population belong to Caucasoid racial stock, highly industrialised and urbanised, high percentage of people are literate and rich and dominance of commercial agriculture. 
8. North Africa: North Africa is geographically a part of Africa but culturally the region is closer to Arab region. Therefore, the region is also known as Arab Africa. For many centuries Caucasoid peoples speaking Hamitic and Semitic languages have penetrated into Sudan, the highlands, and the coastal lands of East Africa. French called it the Levant - “rising”, land of the rising sun. It essentially refers to the lands around the eastern Mediterranean. The influence of Mediterranean culture is deeply felt in the region. The Southern boundary of this region is complex. The cultural break between Arab Africa and Central (tribal) Africa cut several countries including Sudan and Nigeria. Some of the important cultural traits of this region are - a religious tradition of Islam and dominance of Arabic language speaking population and colonial legacy of France. 
9. Middle Africa: It is also referred to as ‘Negro’ or ‘Black’ Africa. But these terms have racial connotations and therefore should not be used. It is also referred to as Central or Middle Africa, but these have geographical meanings. It has preserved its identity to a much large degree than other tribal groups of the world. It is the core of African tribal culture. It is a kind of shatter belt between Arab North Africa and Christian South Africa. It is a large territorial unit. Some of the important cultural characteristics of this region are nomadism, and primary economic activities such as mining, fishing, forestry and subsistence agriculture. 
10. South Africa: South America is an extension of Meso-American cultural region. The region is numerically dominated by black African population. There are significant European white populations of Dutch and English origin in the Republic of South Africa and Zimbabwe. The region is also populated by ethnic groups from Asia, such as Indians and Malays. Some of the distinct cultural characteristics which differentiate this region are the predominance of Afrikaners. The region has history of conflicts between indigenous blacks and white immigrants in countries such as Zimbabwe and South Africa. 
11. Australia: Australia, New Zealand and other smaller islands of the Pacific Ocean constitute a distinct cultural region. Both Australia and New Zealand have been populated by white settlers from across Europe and other countries. In Australia, large majority of population live in narrow coastal zone while the vast area has virtually remained uninhabited. The Australian aborigines constitute insignificant minority. The white settlers constitute the majority population. The Maoris are the indigenous people of the country. They are integrated in the mainstream society. New Zealand has climate similar to that of England. 
12. North America: As a cultural region North America consists of the United States of America and Canada. Sometimes it is referred to as “Anglo” America. However, the term “Anglo” is not liked by many communities in North America, such as black people of United States and French speaking people of Quebec (Canada). For these people “Anglo” refers to an essentially alien heritage. The white settlers from Europe virtually eliminated the entire indigenous Indians. Later, the black population from Africa were imported as slaves to work in plantation fields as manual labourers. Today, black population constitute a significant minority. Though racism has long been abolished, it remains a very important issue in American society even today. This cultural region is a melting pot - people with distinct ethnic and nationalities have immigrated and culturally inter-mixed together. Today,
    North America is the most powerful and one of the prosperous regions of the world. The main cultural characteristics which set apart the North America cultural realm are dominance Christianity faith and English language, industrialism, capitalism, democracy and cultural intermixing, and a tendency to politically, militarily and economically dominate the world. Most part of Canada remains wild and only a narrow strip is populated. Much of the wilderness is sporadically inhabited by the hunters, loggers and miners. The country is dominated by the European white Christians who speak English and French languages. With the exception of Quebec, the British tradition dominates. The tension between French speaking Quebec and English speaking rest has existed since long. 
13. Middle America: The countries between river Rio Grande (boundary between the US and Mexico) and Columbia in South America along with the islands of the Caribbean constitute a distinct cultural realm. Although, Mexico is economically closer to North America. From the pre-European times this was a significant cultural hearth, where cities were founded thousand years ago, crops were domesticated, and empire was built. This, too, was the scene of the first European arrivals and for some time it remained the focus from which the white man’s influences radiated outward. Middle America is a distinct cultural region because of its historical depth and cultural distinctiveness.
    Some other cultural traits of this region are predominance of Christianity faith, Spanish language and mixing of racial groups. This region shares these characteristics with neighbouring South America. Culturally, Middle America and South America are part of ‘Latin America’. 
14. South America: This cultural region consists of whole of the continent of South America. It was once a seat of impressive Indian civilization.
    It was swamped by the White European civilization. There was an overwhelming influence of Latin of Iberian Peninsula origin (Spain and Portugal), in the region. Portugal and Spain occupied almost the entire continent. From the colonial period emerged the modern political landscape. Portugal dominated in Brazil. Spanish domain divided into nine countries. A clear cultural identity of this region- Latin America - is shaped by its history and culture. Some of the important cultural traits of this region are: have religious faith of catholic Christianity, speak languages of Latin origin (Spanish is predominant except Brazil where Portuguese is spoken), widespread intermixing of racial groups and sharp divisions between left and right ideologies, and existence of most primitive to most modern forms of social formation in the continent.

Globalisation and Culture

Globalisation is defined as the process of widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness. This interconnectedness is realised through flow of people, capital, information, goods and services. The process of globalisation is contentious issue in the study of cultural patterns of the earth. The modes and infrastructures of global communication have resulted in transnational spread and growing contacts between different cultures. Also people with different cultural backgrounds are legally or illegally moving in large numbers across national borders and continents. Thus, the new age of globalisation that took place in the late 20th century has brought unprecedented level of intercultural interaction.

This is leading to simultaneous tendencies towards both an expanded sense of global solidarity among the like-minded people and difference and hostility between different cultures, nations and ethnic groups. There is cultural fusion as well as conflicts. The metropolitan centres of developing societies are fast changing so as to meet the norms and practices of culture of capital and capitalism.

On the other hand, many local and regional cultures are experiencing rapid and widespread unwanted changes from the cultural contact with cultural traits of capitalist occidental world. These cultures and cultural regions have to deal with the hegemony of the Occident and neo-liberal capitalism. Cultures and social orders of these societies are under clutch of the Occident. Therefore, not surprisingly, the new wave of globalisation has met local resistance from regional cultures, which are seeking to preserve their cultures and social orders.