Passage Based Questions: Bricks, Beads and Bones | History Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Passage - 1

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The Most Ancient System Yet Discovered

About the drains, Mackay noted: “It was certainly the most complete ancient system as yet discovered.” Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning. In some cases, limestone was used for the covers. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning. It was a wonder of archaeology that “little heaps of material, mostly sand, have frequently been found lying alongside drainage channels, which shows … that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared.”

From Ernest Mackay, Early Indus Civilisation, 1948.

Drainage systems were not unique to the larger cities, but were found in smaller settlements as well. At Lothal, for example, while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were made of burnt bricks.

(i) Why did Mackay describe this drainage system as the most complete ancient system?
Ans:  Mackay described it as complete because it was well-planned, systematic, and unique for its time, especially in terms of cleanliness and efficiency.

(ii) Was the drainage system similar in both large and small settlements of Harappa? Support your answer with examples.
Ans:  Drainage systems were not exclusive to larger cities but were also present in smaller settlements. For instance, in Lothal, although houses were made of mud bricks, the drains were constructed with burnt bricks.

(iii) List any two features of the drainage system.
Ans: 

• Every house was connected to the street drains.
• The main channels were constructed of bricks set in mortar and were covered with loose bricks or, in some cases, limestone for cleaning purposes.

Passage - 2

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“Evidence of an Invasion”

Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width. At the point where the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax and upper arm of an adult were discovered, all in a very friable condition, at a depth of 4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to the west were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owes its name.

From John Marshall, Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilisation, 1931.

(a) Why is the lane named Deadman Lane?
Ans:  The lane is called Deadman Lane because:

• Human skeletal remains, including part of a skull and bones of the thorax and upper arm, were discovered.
• The body was found lying diagonally across the lane, with additional fragments of a tiny skull found nearby.

(b) What conclusions have scholars and archaeologists drawn from this evidence?
Ans: 

• Scholars and archaeologists believe that the evidence suggests an invasion.
• They also conclude that this invasion may have led to the end of the Indus Civilization.

(c) Why can earlier interpretations sometimes be reversed? Justify with examples.
Ans: 

• Earlier interpretations can be reversed because new evidence may not support previous conclusions.
• For instance, George Dales' findings showed that the skeletons did not belong to the same period, and the bones indicated sloppy burial practices without signs of struggle, defense, or war.

Passage - 3

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Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zooarchaeologists indicate that these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. We do not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

Q1: What kinds of animal bones have been discovered at Harappan sites, and what do studies by archaeo-zoologists suggest about them?
Ans:

• Animal bones found at Harappan sites include cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig.
• Studies conducted by archaeo-zoologists indicate that these animals were domesticated, suggesting that the Harappans practiced animal husbandry.

Q2: What types of wild animal bones are found at Harappan sites, and is it clear whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves?
Ans:

• Harappan sites contain bones of wild species like boar, deer, and gharial.
• It is not definitively known whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities.

Q3: Besides land animals, what other types of animal remains are discovered at Harappan sites?
Ans:

• In addition to land animals, remains of fish and fowl (birds) have also been found at Harappan sites.

Passage - 4

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Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), associated with Early Harappan levels (see p. 20). The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting. Did the Harappans use stone blades set in wooden handles or did they use metal tools? Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind.

Q1: What evidence of early agricultural practices have archaeologists found at Kalibangan, and what does it suggest about Harappan farming?
Ans:

• At Kalibangan, archaeologists discovered a ploughed field with two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, indicating the cultivation of two different crops together.
• This finding suggests that the Harappans practiced early forms of agriculture, possibly using advanced techniques like crop rotation.

Q2: What have archaeologists tried to determine regarding the tools used for harvesting during the Harappan period, and what is the significance of this research?
Ans:

• Archaeologists have attempted to identify whether the Harappans used stone blades set in wooden handles or metal tools for harvesting.
• Understanding the type of tools used provides insights into the technological advancements and agricultural practices of the Harappan civilization.

Q3: In regions with semi-arid climates, such as Punjab and Sind, what evidence of irrigation have archaeologists found at Harappan sites, and what sets Shortughai in Afghanistan apart in this regard?
Ans:

• In regions with semi-arid climates like Punjab and Sind, there is no direct evidence of canals used for irrigation at Harappan sites.
• However, at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, traces of canals have been discovered, indicating the presence of an irrigation system.

Passage - 5

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The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town. The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings were built on platforms, which served as foundations. It has been calculated that if one labourer moved roughly a cubic metre of earth daily, just to put the foundations in place it would have required four million person-days, in other words, mobilising labour on a very large scale.

Q1: What was the primary purpose of constructing buildings on mud brick platforms in the Citadel at the Harappan site?
Ans:

• The primary purpose of building structures on mud brick platforms in the Citadel was to elevate the buildings to a greater height, providing protection and defense while also preventing damage from floods or other environmental factors.

Q2: How were the Citadel and Lower Town physically separated, and what were their respective features?
Ans:

• The Citadel and Lower Town were separated by walls, creating a physical division between them.
• The Citadel, located at a higher elevation, featured buildings on mud brick platforms, while the Lower Town also had walls and buildings constructed on platforms.

Q3: What scale of labor and effort was required for putting the foundations in place for the structures at the Harappan site?
Ans:

• It has been estimated that mobilizing labor on a massive scale, approximately four million person-days, would have been necessary if each laborer moved about a cubic meter of earth daily for putting the foundations in place at the Harappan site.

Passage - 6

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Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

Q1: How were bathrooms in houses at Mohenjodaro constructed, and what were they connected to?
Ans:

• Bathrooms in houses at Mohenjodaro were constructed with brick paving.
• They were connected to street drains through the walls, allowing for proper drainage and sanitation.

Q2: What were some architectural features found in the houses of Mohenjodaro?
Ans:

• Many houses in Mohenjodaro had staircases leading to a second storey or the roof, indicating multi-level construction.
• Some houses had wells, often accessible from the outside, which may have been used by passers-by.

Q3: Approximately how many wells have scholars estimated existed in Mohenjodaro?
Ans:

• Scholars have estimated that there were about 700 wells in Mohenjodaro, providing an essential source of water for the inhabitants of the city.

Passage - 7

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The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.

Q1: What were the architectural features of the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro?
Ans:

• The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank situated in a courtyard.
• It was surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
• There were two flights of steps leading into the tank from the north and south.
• The tank was made watertight by using bricks set on edge and a mortar of gypsum.

Q2: What was the purpose of the rooms surrounding the Great Bath, and what was found in one of them?
Ans:

• The rooms around the Great Bath served various purposes.
• In one of these rooms, there was a large well.

Q3: How was the drainage system of the Great Bath designed?
Ans:

• Water from the Great Bath flowed into a substantial drain, indicating a well-planned drainage system for the ancient city of Mohenjodaro.

Passage - 8

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Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. In fact, in the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male. In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead

Q1: What have archaeologists found in some graves from the Harappan civilization, and what might this suggest about the beliefs regarding the afterlife?
Ans:

• Archaeologists have discovered pottery and ornaments in some Harappan graves.
• This suggests a belief that these items could be used by the deceased in the afterlife.

Q2: What types of jewelry have been found in the burials of both men and women from the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• Jewelry has been discovered in burials of both men and women, indicating that personal adornment and ornamentation were common in Harappan society.

Q3: Were precious items commonly buried with the deceased in the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• No, on the whole, it seems that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious objects with the dead, although some exceptions, such as copper mirrors, have been found.

Passage - 9

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The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented. Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some had designs etched onto them.

Q1: What materials were used to make beads in the Harappan civilization, and can you name a few examples of these materials?
Ans:

• Materials used for making beads included stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.
• Metals such as copper, bronze, and gold were also used.
• Additionally, beads were crafted from materials like shell, faience, and terracotta (burnt clay).

Q2: What were some of the different shapes and designs of beads found in the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• Beads came in various shapes, including disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.
• Some beads were intricately decorated through incising, painting, or etching designs onto them.

Q3: Can you provide an example of a unique bead-making technique or combination of materials used in the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• Some beads were made by cementing two or more stones together, while others were crafted from stone with gold caps, showcasing the advanced craftsmanship of the Harappans.

Passage - 10

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Archaeologists’ experiments have revealed that the red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production. Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form. Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process. Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.

Q1: How was the red color of carnelian beads achieved, and where have archaeological evidence of bead-making tools been discovered?
Ans:

• The red color of carnelian beads was achieved by firing the yellowish raw material at various stages of production.
• Beads were initially crafted by chipping nodules into rough shapes, which were then finely flaked into their final form.
• The finishing touches involved grinding, polishing, and drilling. Archaeological evidence of specialized drills has been discovered at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and more recently at Dholavira.

Q2: What was the transformation process involved in producing carnelian beads from raw material to the final product?
Ans:

• The process included initially chipping nodules into rough shapes.
• These rough shapes were further refined by finely flaking them into their final bead forms.
• The beads were then ground, polished, and drilled to complete their production.

Q3: Can you explain the significance of archaeological findings related to bead-making tools at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira in understanding the Harappan civilization's craftsmanship?
Ans:

• The discovery of specialized bead-making tools at these sites suggests the high level of craftsmanship and technical knowledge possessed by the Harappan civilization.
• These findings provide insights into their bead production techniques, including the transformation of carnelian's color through firing, and the meticulous processes involved in bead creation.

Passage - 11

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Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold). These expeditions established communication with local communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in these areas are indications of such contact. There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans.

Q1: How did the Harappans procure essential raw materials like copper and gold, and what is the evidence of their expeditions to specific regions?
Ans:

• The Harappans likely procured copper from the Khetri region of Rajasthan and gold from South India.
• Evidence of these expeditions can be seen in occasional finds of Harappan artefacts, such as steatite micro beads, in these regions, indicating contact with local communities.

Q2: What was the significance of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, and how does it relate to the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture is associated with the Khetri area of Rajasthan and featured distinctive non-Harappan pottery.
• It is characterized by an abundance of copper objects, and it is possible that this culture supplied copper to the Harappan civilization, highlighting the interconnections between different regional cultures during ancient times.

Q3: How did the Harappans establish communication and trade relations with local communities in regions like Khetri and South India?
Ans:

• The Harappans likely established communication and trade relations with local communities through expeditions to areas rich in copper (such as Khetri in Rajasthan) and gold (South India).
• Occasional discoveries of Harappan artefacts in these regions suggest that these interactions facilitated trade and access to essential raw materials.

Passage - 12

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Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel. Other archaeological finds suggestive of longdistance contacts include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads. In this context, it is worth noting that Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. They mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.

Q1: What archaeological evidence supports the idea of long-distance contacts between the Harappan civilization and other regions?
Ans:

• Archaeological finds such as Harappan seals, weights, dice, and beads suggest long-distance contacts between the Harappan civilization and other regions.

Q2: What regions are mentioned in Mesopotamian texts as having contact with the Harappan civilization, and what are the potential products exchanged between them?
Ans:

• Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions like Dilmun (possibly Bahrain), Magan, and Meluhha, which is believed to refer to the Harappan region.
• The texts note the exchange of products from Meluhha, including carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and various types of wood.

Q3: How do the references in Mesopotamian texts contribute to our understanding of the Harappan civilization's trade and interactions with other regions?
Ans:

• The references in Mesopotamian texts provide valuable historical evidence of the trade and contact between the Harappan civilization and regions like Dilmun, Magan, and Meluhha.
• They shed light on the products exchanged and the extent of long-distance interactions, enriching our understanding of the Harappan civilization's role in early trade networks.

Passage - 13

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Seals and sealings were used to facilitate longdistance communication. Imagine a bag of goods being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

Q1: How were seals and sealings used in the context of long-distance communication in the ancient Indus Valley civilization?
Ans:

• Seals and sealings were employed to secure bags of goods sent between places.
• Wet clay was applied to the knot of the bag, and one or more seals were pressed into the clay to create impressions.
• The intact sealing on a bag indicated that it had not been tampered with during transit.
• Additionally, the seals conveyed information about the identity of the sender.

Q2: What was the purpose of affixing wet clay impressions on the knots of bags in long-distance trade?
Ans:

• Affixing wet clay impressions served as a security measure to ensure the integrity of goods during transportation.
• It provided a tamper-evident seal, indicating if the bag had been opened or tampered with.

Q3: How did the use of seals and sealings aid in the efficient functioning of long-distance trade in the ancient Indus Valley civilization?
Ans:

• Seals and sealings allowed for the secure packaging of goods, enabling them to be transported with confidence.
• The impressions on the clay conveyed essential information, facilitating trade and communication between distant locations.

Passage - 14

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Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space.

Q1: What is the significant feature of most inscriptions in the ancient Indus Valley script?
Ans:

• Most inscriptions in the ancient Indus Valley script are short in length.

Q2: Why is the ancient Indus Valley script considered undeciphered despite being composed of numerous signs?
Ans:

• The script remains undeciphered because it was not an alphabetical script, and it consists of a large number of signs (between 375 and 400).

Q3: How can the direction of writing in the ancient Indus Valley script be inferred from some seals?
Ans:

• The direction of writing is believed to be from right to left as some seals exhibit wider spacing on the right and a crammed appearance on the left, indicating that the engravers may have started from the right side and worked towards the left.

Passage - 15

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A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”. This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found parallels in the Indus region. But as we will see (p.23), the ritual practices of the Harappan civilisation are not well understood yet nor are there any means of knowing whether those who performed them also held political power. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.

Q1: Why was a stone statue in the ancient Indus Valley civilization labeled as the "priest-king"?
Ans:

• The statue was labeled as the "priest-king" because archaeologists, who were familiar with Mesopotamian history, found parallels between the statue and Mesopotamian "priest-kings."

Q2: What remains unclear regarding the ritual practices and political power within the Harappan civilization?
Ans:

• The ritual practices of the Harappan civilization are not well understood, and it is uncertain whether those who performed them also held political power.

Q3: What are some differing opinions among archaeologists regarding rulers in the Harappan society?
Ans:

• Some archaeologists believe that the Harappan society had no rulers, and everyone enjoyed equal status. Others suggest that there were multiple rulers, with different regions like Mohenjodaro and Harappa having separate rulers.

Passage - 16

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In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE there appears to have been a transformation of material culture, marked by the disappearance of the distinctive artefacts of the civilisation – weights, seals, special beads. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also disappeared. In general, far fewer materials were used to make far fewer things. House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer produced. Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in what are called “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures”.

Q1: What significant changes occurred in the material culture of the Harappan civilization after 1900 BCE?
Ans:

• After 1900 BCE, there was a transformation in material culture in the Harappan civilization marked by the disappearance of distinctive artifacts such as weights, seals, and special beads.

Q2: What aspects of the Harappan society underwent a decline during the "Late Harappan" or "successor cultures" period?
Ans:

• During this period, writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization disappeared, house construction techniques deteriorated, and large public structures were no longer produced.

Q3: How would you describe the way of life and material production in the "Late Harappan" or "successor cultures"?
Ans:

• The material culture and settlements of the "Late Harappan" or "successor cultures" indicate a shift towards a rural way of life, with the use of fewer materials to produce fewer things.