Democracy: Forms of Government | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Democracy as a Social Organization and its Prerequisites

1. Definition of Democracy: The passage defines democracy as the organization of society for liberty and equality through the spirit of fellowship or fraternity. It emphasizes that democracy is about more than just the form of government; it's a product of democratic society and values like liberty, equality, and brotherhood are essential components.

2. Democracy as an Ideal: Democracy is described as an ideal rather than a fixed, existing system. It is constantly evolving and approximating this ideal, and it cannot exist where people do not value liberty, equality, and human brotherhood.

3. Approximation of Democracy: The passage acknowledges that certain countries, such as England, the United States, and Switzerland, approximate the democratic ideal. Key factors in this approximation include opportunities for citizens to be active in public affairs, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and tolerance of differences and criticism.

4. Role of Free Discussion: Free and open discussion is considered fundamental to democracy. It is through free discussion and the exchange of ideas that individuals arrive at common agreements and decisions. This allows for the emergence of a point of view that embodies the truth of what various individuals stood for.

5. Requisites of Democracy: The passage outlines the requisites for democracy, which include both socio-economic factors and the intellectual and moral qualities of citizens.

6. Intellectual and Moral Qualities: Some of the intellectual and moral qualities essential for democracy include:

   • A strong desire for liberty and equality.
   • Public-spiritedness and a sense of public responsibility.
   • Honesty and honour.
   • Political intelligence, political maturity, and the ability to make informed choices.
   • Willingness to settle differences through negotiation and discussion rather than resorting to violence.

7. Unity and Solidarity: The sense of unity and solidarity within a community is crucial for democracy. A society divided by religious and class differences may struggle to prioritize common interests over sectional interests.

8. Importance of Moral Rectitude: Democracy depends on the fundamental honesty and love of justice exhibited by the people. Corruption can erode the foundations of democracy.

9. Political Wisdom: Political wisdom or political maturity is vital for citizens to make informed decisions, understand issues, and engage in intelligent discussions.

10. Avoiding Violence: Democracy discourages the use of direct action and violence, promoting the resolution of differences through peaceful means.

In summary, the passage provides a comprehensive view of democracy as an ideal form of society based on values of liberty, equality, and brotherhood. It underscores the importance of intellectual and moral qualities in citizens, unity, political wisdom, and non-violence as prerequisites for a functioning democracy.

Socio-Economic conditions and prerequisites

Here are the key points highlighted:

1. Economic Equality: Extremes of wealth and poverty can hinder the success of democracy. Economic equality is seen as a prerequisite for political equality, as a more equitable distribution of national wealth can prevent the wealthy from dominating and exploiting the poor. Economic disparities can also erode the sense of unity and harmony crucial for democracy.

2. Homogeneity of the Population: Some degree of homogeneity within the population is considered essential for democracy. While factors like a common language, religion, and race can promote unity, they are not always indispensable. Countries like Switzerland and the United States have achieved a sense of national unity without these commonalities, primarily through education in the values and culture of the nation.

3. Caste-Based Discrimination: Caste-based distinctions, as observed in India, are incompatible with the democratic principle of equality. Democracy requires the elimination of superior and inferior distinctions, as well as the spirit of inequality.

4. Freedom of the Press: The importance of a free press in democracy. A free press is one that is independent and not controlled by the government or vested interests. It should allow the expression of various opinions, including those critical of the existing social and political order. The press also plays a crucial role in providing information to citizens.

5. Political Intelligence: The citizens must have the ability to engage in free discussion and make informed decisions. This includes choosing their representatives wisely, understanding important issues, and participating in intelligent discussions.

6. Resolution of Differences: The significance of resolving differences through negotiation and discussion rather than resorting to violence. The spirit of democracy discourages direct action as a means of achieving political goals.

7. Moral Rectitude: Highlights the importance of honesty and honour in the citizens, indicating that moral values are fundamental to democracy.

8. National Education: A national system of education that propagates social righteousness, unity, and the supremacy of moral laws is seen as essential for democracy. However, it should not imply indoctrination but rather the instruction of the nation in national culture and fundamental values.

In summary, the socio-economic and moral conditions that are prerequisites for a successful democracy. It emphasizes the importance of economic equality, social harmony, a sense of unity, and moral rectitude in the citizens, along with the role of a free press and education in promoting democratic values.

Consent of the People and Theory of Natural Rights

Different arguments have been presented over time in support of the principle that governments should operate with the consent of the governed. In the 17th century, philosophers argued that individuals have a natural right to participate in government, believing that governments should derive their legitimate powers from the consent of the governed. The purpose of government, they argued, is to safeguard the natural rights of individuals, including rights to liberty, equality, and the pursuit of happiness. However, this 17th-century notion of natural rights is less prevalent in contemporary discussions, as it poses practical difficulties regarding the consent of every individual. Instead, modern democratic systems focus on free discussion and participation as fundamental to democracy.

Challenges of the Seventeenth-Century Theory

The original concept of natural rights that requires individual consent has lost prominence due to practical challenges:

1. Obtaining the Consent of Every Individual: It is impossible to secure the explicit consent of every individual for every law, as this would lead to anarchy. In practical governance, not every law can be subject to individual consent.

2. Difficulties in Legislative Elections: Requiring that every legislator must have the support of every voter in their constituency is unfeasible. This would lead to absurd situations where people have chosen their legislator through opposition.

3. Disruptive Impact: This theory can be misused to challenge the authority of the government if individuals dissent from the constitution's basic principles. This could lead to challenges by groups or individuals against their own government.

4. Potential for Authoritarianism: Paradoxically, this theory could be used to defend dictatorial regimes such as those led by Mussolini, Hitler, or Stalin, by arguing that these leaders obtained consent or majority support.

Value of the Seventeenth-Century Natural Rights Concept

Although the seventeenth-century theory of natural rights is no longer widely endorsed, it retains value as it implies a principle of great significance for democracy:

• Every person must be respected as a source of claims and not treated merely as a means or instrument for others' happiness.
• It implies that all interests should be impartially considered.
• This moral principle aligns with the democratic notion that every individual counts equally.

Utilitarian Defense of Democracy

• Promoting Beneficent Results: Utilitarians defend democracy based on the beneficial outcomes that result from people's participation in governance. They argue that democracy is more efficient than monarchy or aristocracy because it prioritizes the well-being of all individuals, regardless of their social status.
• Efficiency and Popular Control: Democracy's efficiency arises from the control of government by those chosen to govern, who cannot ignore the welfare of the citizens. Popular election, control, and responsibility foster greater governmental efficiency. It also protects against oppressive governmental actions.
• Individual Rights and General Prosperity: Democracy's success is attributed to two general principles applicable to human affairs: protecting individual rights is best achieved when individuals can advocate for themselves, and general prosperity is enhanced when all citizens are actively engaged in promoting it.
• Democratic Sensitivity: Democracy is highly sensitive to the sufferings of its citizens, distinguishing it from other forms of government. It encourages the government to address citizen concerns and avoid unjust actions.
• Reducing Revolutionary Risks: Democracy minimizes the dangers of violent revolutions through mechanisms like voting and addressing grievances, limiting inequalities, and preventing privileges and merit from going unrecognized.
• Balancing State Authority and Individual Liberty: Democracy reconciles the authority of the state with individual liberty. Laws made in a democratic system protect individual freedoms and rights, ensuring that government serves the people rather than imposes constraints on them.
• Promoting National Character: Democracy fosters a higher form of national character compared to other forms of government. It elevates the character of the people and activates their intellectual capacities.
• Inspiring Patriotism: Democracy nurtures patriotism by involving citizens in the government's affairs. People begin to love their nation as they become part of the decision-making process.
• Relying on Public Opinion: Public opinion is a vital tool in a democracy that keeps the government on the right path. When a government deviates from the will of the people, public opinion exerts pressure on it to correct its policies.

Conclusion
Although the seventeenth-century theory of natural rights based on individual consent is no longer widely accepted, the concept of respecting every individual's claims is still valuable. Utilitarians provide a robust defense of democracy, emphasizing its efficiency, capacity to elevate national character, and sensitivity to individual and societal needs. Democracy reconciles state authority with individual liberty, reducing the risks of revolutionary upheaval. It relies on public opinion to ensure the government's accountability and responsiveness to citizen concerns, making it a crucial form of governance.

The Attack on Democracy

Democracy, like any system, has its strengths and weaknesses. Several critiques have emerged, challenging the fundamental principles of democracy. Some repudiate the notion of human equality and question its ethical justifiability, while others consider democracy practically inefficient, even going as far as condemning it as the "cult of incompetence." Additionally, democracy is criticized as unscientific, not aligning with findings in psychology and biology.

Repudiation of the Doctrine of Human Equality

1. Equality as a Fiction: Critics argue that the idea of human equality is a "fiction" and indefensible. They suggest that if we remove the specific qualities and talents that vary among individuals, there is little left but undifferentiated potentiality.
2. Nature of Human Self: Proponents of equality assert that every individual possesses unique dignity and moral worth due to a spiritual principle inherent in human nature.

Utilitarian Approach to Democracy

1. Anti-Equality Arguments: Anti-democrats reject the principle of human equality for political purposes and propose that political power should be allocated based on factors like social status, professional success, and intellectual achievements, indicating differences in political intelligence.
2. Criticism of "One Man, One Vote": Critics argue that the democratic principle of "one man, one vote" is unfair, treating wise and foolish, thrifty and spendthrift, rich and poor on the same footing during elections.
3. Specialization and Legislation: Anti-democrats highlight that legislative work is complex and specialized, and not every citizen is equipped with the necessary knowledge and experience. They advocate for a system where qualified individuals take on legislative roles.

Democratic Acknowledgment of Leadership

1. Leadership Role: Democracy acknowledges the importance of leadership. Leaders are expected to guide and secure the support of those who have confidence in their policies, rather than following popular opinion.
2. Democratic Accountability: In democracy, leaders are accountable to the people, who trust them to make informed decisions on their behalf.

Democracy as the Cult of Incompetence

1. Average Man and Incompetence: Critics argue that democracy, as rule by the average person who may lack intelligence and relies more on emotion than reason, is inherently inefficient. This perspective views democracy as unfavorable to intellectual progress.
2. Influence of Emotion: The average person may be swayed by emotional appeals, sensationalism in media, and vote-catching slogans, diminishing the rational basis of their decisions.

Limitations of Party Systems and Elections

1. Party System Critique: Critics point out that party systems can lead to hollowness, insincerity, and a focus on winning rather than serving the interests of the people. The system may reduce the individuality of members.
2. Vote-Gaining Tactics: Elections can be influenced by questionable tactics, which can lead to corruption, bribery, and other unethical practices.

The Impossibility of Democracy

1. Democracy as an Oligarchy: Some critics argue that so-called democracies are, in reality, oligarchies controlled by a small governing class. The authority of the people is nominal, with real power held by a tiny minority.
2. Qualities Required: Democracy is also criticized for expecting qualities of heart and mind from ordinary individuals that they are believed to lack. Critics contend that people may not desire liberty, equality, and may not possess sentiments of fellowship and public spirit.

Defense of Democracy

1. Empirical Success of Democracy: Despite its critics, democracy has been adopted by numerous civilized states worldwide, indicating its viability. Imperfections in democratic systems can be overcome as they evolve.
2. Empowerment of Ordinary Citizens: Modern democracies do not require specialized knowledge from citizens but rely on their wisdom in choosing leaders and respecting their authority. This approach has been successful in various countries.
3. Historical Examples: History shows that movements for liberty and equality, along with revolutions against despotism, illustrate the desire for democracy among populations.

In conclusion, while democracy faces criticisms related to human equality, competence, and its feasibility, it has been widely adopted and has demonstrated its ability to empower ordinary citizens, making it a prominent system of governance in many countries.

Lord James Bryce's Views on Democracy

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Bryce's Perspective on Democracy:

• Lord James Bryce, an eminent scholar, closely observed democracy in several leading countries, including France, Switzerland, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand.
• He concluded that the process of democratization did not undermine justice, order, or civil administration efficiency in these countries. In fact, governments in these nations effectively fulfilled their established purposes.

Democratic Advantages Over Monarchy and Aristocracy:

• Bryce compared democracy with monarchy and aristocracy and found democracy to be superior.
• Monarchy may succeed only with exceptional, virtuous rulers, which history shows to be rare. Most kings are often weak, careless, or dissolute.
• While aristocracy offers certain merits like stability and efficient administration, Bryce asserted that people who have lived under democracy would rarely prefer other forms. Democracy is less oppressive, promotes individual liberty, and encourages human sympathy.

Critiques of Democracy:

• Bryce was not blind to democracy's flaws. He pointed out six significant issues in modern democracies:
  1. Influence of money on legislation and politics.
  2. Politicization as a profession.
  3. Extravagance in administration.
  4. Misuse of the equality doctrine and undervaluing administrative skill.
  5. Excessive power of political party organizations.
  6. Legislators and officials playing for votes and tolerating breaches of order.

Democracy's Challenges:

• Bryce identified two major dangers in democracy. First, the self-interest of those in control can lead to abuse of power for personal gain. Second, the press, supplying information to the public, can sometimes manipulate public opinion through half-truths and distortions.

Failures of Democracy:

• Bryce noted democracy's failure to achieve expected outcomes. It fell short in promoting a sense of brotherhood and fostering friendly relations between nations due to the dominance of nationalism.
• Democracy also struggled to create a sense of community within states, often lacking true fellowship or fraternity alongside liberty and equality.
• Furthermore, democracy faced difficulty purifying politics and remained susceptible to the corrupting influence of money on legislators and officials.

Estimate of Democracy:

• While democracy may have failed to provide complete satisfaction, Bryce acknowledged its achievements in reducing many sources of misery and injustice that plagued humanity historically.
• Democracy, despite its flaws, has improved the human condition by diminishing cruelties, errors, injustices, and oppressions.

Spiritual Foundation for Democracy:

• Bryce's analysis emphasized that democracy needs a spiritual foundation. A civilization grounded in the recognition of human beings as spiritual entities is more favorable for democracy.
• Bryce urged for the revival of older moral values based on faith in God and religion, arguing that secularism and atheism in industrialized societies contributed to the crisis of democracy.

Gandhiji's Views on Democracy:

• Gandhi believed that true democracy must grow from within the community and require self-control and self-purification. It could only be achieved in a society imbued with the religious spirit and faith in God.
• According to Gandhi, politics bereft of religion are harmful, and the salvation of humanity depends on basing socio-economic life on religious principles.

Need for a Spiritual Democracy:

• Spiritual democracy implies recognizing the spiritual nature of humanity and the universe. People are children of God, bound by love and compassion, and their duty to society takes precedence over their rights.
• This spiritual democracy prioritizes the development of individual faculties through contributing to the well-being of the entire community, where self-realization involves working for the collective good.
• Gandhi and Vinoba Bhave envisioned such a society based on love and nonviolence through values like Gramdan (donating land for the common good).

Challenges for Democracy:

• Democracy faces a crisis today due to the weakening of faith in religion and morality, resulting in egoism, social disharmony, and a lack of mutual goodwill.
• The race for wealth and power in the present industrial civilization has led to inequality and discontent, undermining the spiritual foundation of democracy.

The Role of Spiritual Values:

• To overcome these challenges and rejuvenate democracy, society must return to older moral values grounded in spirituality, faith in God, and the practice of religion.
• Spiritual democracy, characterized by self-realization, unity, and altruism, can lead to social harmony and replace egoism with the spirit of unity.

Conclusion:

• Democracy is undergoing a crisis today, and differing views attribute its struggles to economic conditions, social disharmony, and secularism.
• The erosion of faith in religion, truth, and morality has weakened democracy's spiritual foundation. Spiritual values, such as love and compassion, can restore the sense of unity and fellow-feeling in society, enriching the human experience.

Summary:

• Lord James Bryce highlighted the merits of democracy and compared it favorably with monarchy and aristocracy.
• He pointed out significant issues within modern democracies, such as money's influence, politicization, extravagance, misuse of equality, party politics, and the focus on votes.
• Bryce recognized democracy's failure to promote brotherhood, both domestically and internationally, and purify politics. He emphasized the need for a spiritual foundation for democracy to address its challenges and rejuvenate the sense of unity and altruism.