The Individual Processes: Values and Attitude | Management Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

What is a Personal Value?

• It's a strong belief about what is right or wrong.
• It can guide ethical actions, either being absolute or relative.

Understanding Value System

• A value system is a collection of consistent values and measures.
• Principle values act as a foundation for other values and measures of integrity.

Nature of Values

• Values that aren't biologically determined, like the desire to avoid pain or seek pleasure, are subjective.
• They vary among people and cultures and are often connected to beliefs.

Types of Values

• Ethical/moral values: What's considered right or wrong.
• Doctrinal/ideological values: Linked to religious or political beliefs.
• Social values: Shared norms in a community.
• Aesthetic values: Preferences for beauty or art.

Debates on Values

• Some values, like altruism, are questioned if they're inherent or learned.
• The worth of values like acquisitiveness (desire for possessions) as virtues or vices is debated.

Where Values Are Studied

Values are explored in fields like sociology, anthropology, social psychology, moral philosophy, and business ethics.

Definition of Values

Values are like general preferences about what actions or outcomes are suitable.

What Values Reflect

They show a person's idea of what is right or wrong, what they believe should happen.

Examples of Values

Examples include believing in "Equal rights for all," thinking "Excellence deserves admiration," and feeling "People should be treated with respect and dignity."

Influence of Values

Values impact how you think and act.

Example of Value Impact

• If you value equal rights and work for a company favoring managers over workers, you might feel the company is unfair.
• This could affect your work performance, and you might consider leaving.

Importance of Company Policies

A company with fair policies might lead to a more positive attitude and better behavior from employees.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory

Geert Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis. The theory has been widely used in several fields as a paradigm for research, particularly in cross-cultural psychology, international management, and cross-cultural communication. Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a world-wide survey of employee values by IBM in the 1960s and 1970s. The theory was one of the first that could be quantified, and could be used to explain observed differences between cultures.
The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation). Independent research in Hong Kong led Hofstede to add a fifth dimension, long-term orientation, to cover aspects of values not discussed in the original paradigm. In the 2010 edition of Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind Hofstede added a sixth dimension, indulgence versus self-restraint, as a result of co-author Michael Minkov's analysis of data from the World Values Survey. Further research has refined some of the original dimensions, and introduced the difference between country-level and individual-level data in analysis.

• Power distance index (PDI): “Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.” Cultures that endorse low power distance expect and accept power relations that are more consultative or democratic. People relate to one another more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decision making of those in power. In high power distance countries, less powerful accept power relations that are more autocratic and paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others simply based on where they are situated in certain formal, hierarchical positions. As such, the power distance index Hofstede defines does not reflect an objective difference in power distribution, but rather the way people perceive power differences.
• Individualism (IDV) vs. collectivism: “The degree to which individuals are integrated into groups”. In individualistic societies, the stress is put on personal achievements and individual rights. People are expected to stand up for themselves and their immediate family, and to choose their own affiliations. In contrast, in collectivist societies, individuals act predominantly as members of a lifelong and cohesive group or organization (note: “The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state”). People have large extended families, which are used as a protection in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
• Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI): “a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity”. It reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty. People in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance tend to be more emotional. They try to minimize the occurrence of unknown and unusual circumstances and to proceed with careful changes step by step by planning and by implementing rules, laws and regulations. In contrast, low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible. People in these cultures tend to be more pragmatic, they are more tolerant of change.
• Masculinity (MAS), vs. femininity: “The distribution of emotional roles between the genders”. Masculine cultures’ values are competitiveness, assertiveness, materialism, ambition and power, whereas feminine cultures place more value on relationships and quality of life. In masculine cultures, the differences between gender roles are more dramatic and less fluid than in feminine cultures where men and women have the same values emphasizing modesty and caring. As a result of the taboo on sexuality in many cultures, particularly masculine ones, and because of the obvious gender generalizations implied by Hofstede's terminology, this dimension is often renamed by users of Hofstede's work, e.g. to Quantity of Life vs. Quality of Life.
• Long term orientation (LTO), vs. short term orientation: First called “Confucian dynamism”, it describes societies’ time horizon. Long term oriented societies attach more importance to the future. They foster pragmatic values oriented towards rewards, including persistence, saving and capacity for adaptation. In short term oriented societies, values promoted are related to the past and the present, including steadiness, respect for tradition, preservation of one’s face, reciprocation and fulfilling social obligations.

Definitions of Attitude

An attitude can be described as a positive or negative assessment of people, objects, events, activities, ideas, or various elements in one's surroundings. While there is ongoing debate over precise definitions, Eagly and Chaiken offer one definition, characterizing an attitude as "a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor." It's important to note that, despite the common association of attitudes with affect (emotions or overall arousal), these are generally considered distinct concepts. Attitude is seen as a measure of favorability, whereas affect refers to discrete emotions or overall arousal.

Attitude formation

• Learning Shapes Attitudes:
  • According to Doob (1947), our attitudes are mostly shaped by what we learn.
  • The process of learning involves classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and social learning.
• Attitudes Can Change:
  • Attitudes, unlike personality traits, are expected to change based on our experiences.
• Hereditary Influence on Attitudes:
  • Tesser (1993) suggests that hereditary factors may indirectly affect attitudes.
  • For instance, consistency theories emphasize the importance of being consistent in our beliefs and values.
• Twin Studies for Heritability:
  • Twin studies are used to investigate if certain traits, including attitudes, have a genetic basis.
• Dissonance-Reduction Theory:
  • Proposed by Leon Festinger, this theory explains that when our attitude components (beliefs and behaviors) clash, we may adjust one to align with the other.
• Other Attitude Theories:
  • Balance theory (Heider, 1958) and self-perception theory (Daryl Bem) are additional theories that help explain how attitudes are formed and adjusted.

Self-perception theory

• Self-Perception Theory (SPT):
  • Developed by psychologist Daryl Bem, SPT explains how our attitudes can change.
  • It's different because it says we figure out our attitudes by looking at our own actions, which goes against the usual idea that attitudes come first.
• Observing Behavior for Attitude:
  • According to SPT, we develop our attitudes by watching what we do and figuring out what attitudes might have caused those actions.
• Counterintuitive Nature:
  • SPT is a bit surprising because it goes against the common belief that attitudes come before our behaviors.
• No Need for Deep Thoughts:
  • The theory suggests that we don't always need to dig deep into our thoughts and feelings to understand our attitudes.
  • Instead, we observe our own actions and make sense of them in a rational way, similar to how we explain other people's behaviors.

Attitude change

• What Are Attitudes: Attitudes are our evaluations, beliefs, and behaviors towards something or someone.
• Not Permanent: Attitudes are not fixed; they can change due to social influences, communication, and personal motivations.
• Social Influences Matter: Other people's actions and communication can impact our attitudes, and our desire for cognitive consistency can also play a role.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Attitudes may change when there's conflict between our beliefs and behaviors, known as cognitive dissonance.
• Two Components of Attitudes: Attitudes are made up of both emotional (affective) and thought-based (cognitive) elements.
• Changing Attitudes through Activation: Activating one part of our emotional or thought network can lead to attitude change, as these components are interconnected.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory and Attitude Change

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Developed by Festinger (1957), it's the idea that we feel uneasy when our thoughts or attitudes conflict.
• Cause of Discomfort: Discomfort arises when we have conflicting attitudes or when our attitude clashes with our actions.
• Motivation to Reduce Dissonance: The theory suggests that we're driven to ease this discomfort, leading us to change our attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.
• Attitude Change for Comfort: When faced with inconsistency, our motivation is to make our thoughts, beliefs, and actions align to reduce this uneasy feeling.

Dual process theory

• In psychology, a dual process theory explains how a phenomenon can happen through two distinct processes. 
• Typically, these processes involve an automatic, unconscious aspect (implicit) and a controlled, conscious aspect (explicit). 
• While explicit processes like verbalized attitudes and actions can be influenced and changed through persuasion or education, implicit processes or attitudes typically require a more extended period for change, often involving the development of new habits.

Attitude-Behavior Relationship

Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), created by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, suggests that individual behavior is influenced by behavioral intentions. This theory gained prominence in consumer behavior studies for its practicality in identifying ways to alter customer behavior, especially with innovations. According to TRA, the actual adoption of an innovation depends on an individual's intention to use it.
The model they developed consists of the following components:

Beginning with behavioral intentions, they encompass an individual's attitude toward the behavior and the subjective norm surrounding the behavior. The actual use of an innovation is, therefore, influenced by an individual's intention to use it.

• Attitude Towards Behavior:
  • This reflects an individual's positive or negative feelings about performing a particular behavior.
  • It is determined through an evaluation of one's beliefs related to the behavior.
• Subjective Norm:
  • This is defined as an individual's perception of whether important people in their life think the behavior should be performed.
  • In simpler terms, a person's voluntary behavior is predicted by their attitude toward that behavior and how they believe others would view them if they performed the behavior.
• Behavioral Intention:
  • The combination of a person's attitude and subjective norms shapes their behavioral intention, influencing whether they will actually engage in the behavior.

Theory of planned behavior

• The theory of planned behavior in psychology, introduced by Icek Ajzen, explores the connection between attitudes and behavior. Ajzen proposed this concept to enhance the predictive capability of the theory of reasoned action by introducing perceived behavioral control. 
• It stands out as one of the most effective persuasion theories and has found application in studying the relationships among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions, and behaviors in diverse fields like advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns, and healthcare. 
• In essence, the theory posits that an individual's behavioral intentions and actions are shaped by their attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.