Theories of Socialization | Child Development and Pedagogy for CTET Preparation - CTET & State TET PDF Download

What is Socialisation?

• Socialization is an ongoing process crucial for individuals to gain acceptance within society. It ensures that their actions contribute to the smooth functioning of society.
• It involves acquiring values, norms, and customs that align with the needs and expectations of the community.

Types of Socialisation

Primary Socialisation:

• Occurs from early childhood to adolescence.
• During this phase, individuals learn fundamental skills and values primarily from family, siblings, and peers.
• A key aspect is the imparting of understanding regarding 'right' and 'wrong' behaviors.

Secondary Socialisation:

• Initiates in adulthood and persists throughout life.
• External factors beyond the family, like educational institutions and workplaces, play a significant role.

Cognitive Theories of Socialization

Understanding the theories that explain the impacts of the socialization process is crucial.

The Formation of Self

• According to C.H. Cooley, our sense of self emerges from our interactions with others. This occurs within primary and secondary groups during the socialization process, laying the groundwork for our identity.
• C.H. Cooley emphasized the role of social interaction in shaping one's identity. During interactions, individuals consider how others perceive their actions. This reflection helps individuals construct a self-concept. Cooley termed this phenomenon the "looking-glass self," where individuals imagine how they appear to others and how they are perceived.

Looking glass-self

• This theory suggests that our self-concept is shaped by socialization, leading individuals to adjust their behavior based on how they believe others perceive them.

G.H. Mead's Theory

G.H. Mead described the process involved in the development of the social 'self.' Mead's theory revolves around the concepts of 'I' and 'me'.

• G.H. Mead: The concept of 'I' represents the innate, unsocialized aspect of an individual, while 'me' symbolizes the socialized part that aligns with societal expectations.
• Unsocialized vs. Socialized: 'I' allows for spontaneous expression and creativity, while 'me' is shaped by learned behaviors and societal norms, reflecting others' expectations.
• Development of Self: The distinction between 'I' and 'me' forms the basis for the development of the self, which occurs through stages of imitation, play, and games.
  

Stages of Self-Development:

• Imitation Stage: In this initial phase, young children mimic the actions of those around them without fully understanding the meaning behind the actions.
• Play Stage: Children take on specific roles, such as that of a parent or teacher, and emulate the behaviors associated with these roles.
• Significant Others: Mead refers to individuals with whom a child shares a deep emotional bond as significant others.
• Game Stage: At this advanced stage, children participate in organized games, learning the rules, and concepts of fairness, and understanding societal expectations and judgments.

Understanding Mead's Theory of Self

• Mead used basketball as an analogy to explain how individuals develop a sense of self.
• Just like in basketball where players look to teammates for cues, individuals in society interpret others' perspectives to shape their actions.
• The transition from the play stage to the game stage is pivotal in self-development as individuals internalize external opinions to form a distinct identity.

Socio-psychological perspectives, identity, and cognitive development

Sigmund Freud proposed that human behavior is driven by two main instincts: Eros, which pertains to life instincts, and Thanatos, which relates to death instincts. Eros typically involves sexual desires, while Thanatos encompasses aggressive tendencies.

• Eros and Thanatos:

  Freud characterized the conflict between these instincts as the id, the impulsive part of the psyche seeking immediate gratification. An example is an infant crying for food due to an unmet need.

• The Ego:

  The ego, representing the conscious mind, balances between desires and actions. It helps individuals adapt to delayed gratification as they mature.

• The Superego:

  The superego, as per Freud, incorporates societal norms and values into one's psyche. It reinforces ethical behaviors and guides moral decision-making.

Erikson's Contribution:

Erik Erikson, a student of Freud, introduced the concept of normative crises. These crises involve conflicts between societal expectations and personal achievements, shaping an individual's identity and well-being. In the 1950s, Erikson introduced the eight-stage theory of development, as detailed below:

Early Infancy (Newborn - 1)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Trust and autonomy initiative
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Mistrust
• Psychosocial Task: Hope

Late Infancy (2 - 3)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Trust and autonomy initiative
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Shame and doubt
• Psychosocial Task: Want

Early Childhood (4 - 5)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Trust and autonomy initiative
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Guilt
• Psychosocial Task: Purpose

Middle Childhood (6-12)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Industry
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Inferiority
• Psychosocial Task: Competency

Adolescence (13 - 19)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Identity
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Identity confusion
• Psychosocial Task: Fidelity

Early Adulthood (20 - 24)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Intimacy
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Isolation
• Psychosocial Task: Love

Middle Adulthood (25-64)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Generativity
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Stagnation
• Psychosocial Task: Care

Late Adulthood (65+)

• Favorable Resolution Attitude: Ego Integrity
• Unfavorable Resolution Attitude: Despair
• Psychosocial Task: Wisdom

Jean Piaget's Theory of Personality Development

Piaget emphasized cognition over emotional aspects. Here are the four stages of development according to Piaget:

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years)

• In the sensorimotor stage, infants explore the world through senses and movements, developing cognitive skills like imitation, self-recognition, and representational play. 
• By around eight months, they understand object permanence - the concept that objects exist even when out of sight.

Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)

• Children in this stage exhibit symbolic thinking but lack the ability for logical reasoning. Their thought processes are egocentric, and they struggle with understanding viewpoints other than their own.
• During this stage, children develop the ability to represent the world through language and images. However, they lack logical reasoning. Their judgments are subjective, intuitive, and primarily egocentric.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

• At this phase, children start to think logically about real-world events. 
• They grasp concepts like shapes, conservation, perspective-taking, and the existence of private thoughts. This marks a shift towards more objective thinking.

Formal Operational Stage (12 years and beyond):

• Adolescents in this stage can engage in logical reasoning, contemplate abstract ideas, and test hypotheses systematically. 
• This period witnessed the emergence of scientific thinking, enabling individuals to provide logical explanations when faced with challenges.

Moral Development:

In alignment with Piaget's developmental stages, Lawrence Kohlberg introduces a three-level, six-stage theory focusing on moral development. The following table outlines this model:
Stages of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg's model primarily focuses on the moral development stages in boys, leaving a question open regarding whether girls undergo similar developmental stages.

Summary of Carol Gilligan's Theory on Moral Development

• Carol Gilligan observed that girls, in contrast to boys, consider personal relationships significantly during their moral development.
• She proposed that men and women undergo distinct patterns of interaction.
• Society often overlooks the female pattern of interaction, deeming the male pattern as the norm, despite the differing developmental trajectories between males and females.
• Both men and women are suggested to develop their moral senses through interactions, but societal norms influence the development of their moral compass.
• Kohlberg and Gilligan delved into the study of moral development, with Gilligan focusing on disparities in moral growth between girls and boys.

Differences in Moral Development

• Carol Gilligan emphasized the importance of recognizing the unique moral developmental paths of girls and boys.
• Girls and boys may exhibit distinct moral reasoning based on their individual experiences and interactions.
• Understanding these differences can lead to a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to moral education.

Importance of Organizational Skills

• Efficiently collecting and managing study materials in one central location, such as the StudySmarter app, can enhance learning outcomes.
• Organizational skills play a vital role in academic success by promoting focus and clarity in studying.

Theoretical perspectives on socialization

Let's explore various theories regarding socialization, such as the functionalist and conflict perspectives.

Durkheim's functionalist theory of socialization

Inspired by Émile Durkheim's work, this theory emphasizes the significance of social institutions in transmitting societal norms and values.

• Émile Durkheim's concept of social institutions

  Durkheim proposed that society molds individuals. Through shared values and symbols passed down through generations, human consciousness is shaped, ensuring social cohesion and stability.

• Social stability

  Durkheim recognized that traditional societies upheld mechanical solidarity through religious and familial bonds, which became less relevant in modern times, leading to anomie. He predicted that modern societies would depend on institutions like education and work to foster organic solidarity.

Functionalist Socialisation Theory of Education, Religion, and Work

Functionalists, following Durkheim's ideas, posit that educational institutions, religions, and workplaces play vital roles as agents of secondary socialization in society. Here's a breakdown:

• Education: Children are instructed in discipline and values such as respect for authority, punctuality, and time management. This prepares them to function effectively in society.
• Religion: Religious beliefs instill moral principles and values in young individuals. Upholding these values helps foster social unity and cohesion.
• Workplace: Transitioning from youth to adulthood involves assuming responsibilities and understanding social duties in the workplace. By being productive members of the workforce, individuals contribute to social stability.

Conflict Theories of Socialization: Marxism

• The conflict perspective, rooted in Karl Marx's theory, posits that societal groups are in perpetual conflict for power and resources. This viewpoint asserts that competition is central to social interactions, with dominant groups leveraging their resources and control over institutions to exert influence over marginalized groups.
• Social institutions like schools, workplaces, and families play a crucial role in socializing individuals by instilling norms and beliefs that uphold the interests of the powerful.

Karl Marx's Conflict Theory

• Marxism, a perspective highlighting the class conflict within capitalist societies and the dominance of the ruling class, emphasizes the significance of both primary and secondary socialization in maintaining capitalism.
• Children from the working class are socialized to accept the existing social hierarchy. As they mature, they typically assume roles as laborers serving the affluent capitalists.

Feminism and Its Critique of Gender Socialization

Feminism is a critical perspective that highlights the dominance of men in society. It emphasizes that gender disparities are not biologically determined but are products of social constructs.

Key Concepts:

• Feminism
• Patriarchal Society
• Gender Inequalities

Gender Socialization Process:

Feminists argue that from early socialization within families, gender roles favor men over women, leading to gender inequality. Further reinforcement occurs through secondary socialization in institutions like the media, education, and religion.

Examples of Gender Socialization:

Girls are often brought up with the expectation of becoming wives and mothers, receiving praise for exhibiting "feminine" qualities like nurturing, household chores, and focus on appearance.

How to Assess Socialization Theories

The assessment of socialization theories involves an examination of two primary perspectives: functionalism and conflict theories.

Evaluating the Functionalist Perspective on Socialization

• Functionalist theory emphasizes the positive role of socialization in establishing societal rules and maintaining social order and stability.
• However, a critique arises as functionalism overlooks the potential negative impacts of socialization. Critics such as Marxists and feminists point out that it can reinforce capitalist and patriarchal ideologies.
• Furthermore, not all forms of socialization contribute to stability and solidarity. For example, children born to parents with conflicting values or involved in criminal activities may experience conflicting socialization influences.

Evaluating the Conflict Perspectives on Socialisation

• Marxism emphasizes how socialization processes perpetuate capitalism and the social class hierarchy, instilling these ideologies from a young age and sustaining them throughout life.
• Feminism illustrates how gender roles, expectations, and issues of inequality are not inherently 'natural' or stemming from inherent gender disparities.
• It can be contended that conflict perspectives overlook the stabilizing role of socialization in society, acknowledging that some individuals undergo different socialization experiences, diverging from capitalist or patriarchal norms.