Research on intelligence suggests the existence of a general mental capability known as intelligence, which encompasses various specific abilities. This concept was extended into a new idea known as multiple intelligences, which proposes that there are several domains of intelligence that influence the learning characteristics of children in significant ways.

Construct of Intelligence

The general ability of intelligence consists of specific abilities and capacities that are essential for human cognition:

• Adaptability to a new environment or to changes in the current environment.
• Capacity for knowledge and the ability to acquire it.
• Capacity for reasoning and abstract thought.
• Ability to comprehend relationships.
• Ability to evaluate and judge.
• Capacity for original and productive thought.
• Ability to learn from and interact effectively with the external environment.

These abilities and capacities can be categorized into the three basic functions:

1. Learning: Acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge.
2. Recognizing Problems: Identifying potential problems in the environment.
3. Solving Problems: Using acquired knowledge to devise effective solutions.

Definitions and Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence is a concept that has been studied extensively, resulting in various theories:

Alfred Binet and Terman (Uni-Factor Theory)

• Intelligence is seen as an active ability that enables individuals to adapt to their environment.
• Binet and Terman believed in inborn mental efficiency as a sign of intelligence.
• However, practical observations reveal that intelligence is more complex than a single factor.

Charles Spearman (Two Factor Theory)

• Spearman proposed that intelligent behavior is influenced by a general factor ('g') and a specific factor ('s').
• He argued that 'g' is innate and 's' can be developed through education and experience.

Louis Thurstone (Primary Mental Abilities Theory)

• Thurstone's theory identified seven primary mental abilities such as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, and perceptual speed.
• He developed this theory based on a set of 56 tests administered to college students.

Raymond Cattell and John Horn (Three Stratum Theory)

• They proposed Fluid and Crystallised Intelligence theory, suggesting intelligence consists of fluid and crystallised aspects.
• Fluid intelligence relates to biological aspects of intelligence, while crystallised intelligence involves skills developed through learning and experience.

Multiple Intelligence Theory

In 1983, Howard Gardner proposed the Multiple Intelligence theory, suggesting there are several distinct types of intelligence. Later, he added a new type, 'naturalist intelligence'. The different types of intelligence, according to Gardner, are:

1. Linguistic: Involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, learning languages, and using language to achieve goals. Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers typically excel in this intelligence.
2. Musical: Involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. Musicians and composers have high musical intelligence.
3. Logical-Mathematical: Capacity to analyze problems logically, perform mathematical operations, and investigate scientific issues. This is associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
4. Spatial: Potential to recognize and use patterns of wide spaces and confined areas. Artists and designers typically excel in this area.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic: Ability to use mental abilities to coordinate body movements. Athletes and sportspersons demonstrate high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
6. Intrapersonal: Capacity to understand oneself, appreciate one's feelings, fears, and motivations, and use such information to regulate one's life.
7. Interpersonal: Concerned with understanding the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. It enables effective collaboration with others.
8. Naturalist: Ability to recognize plants, animals, and minerals. This was added later by Gardner.

Gardner's research was based on various case studies, including individuals who excelled in one area but not others, or who developed skills in the absence of others. This led him to propose multiple independent intelligences to explain these cases.

Other Theories of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (Process-Oriented Theory - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence)

In 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, which emphasizes a cognitive approach to intelligence and challenges the psychometric approach.

• Componential: Associated with analytical giftedness, involving the ability to break down problems and identify solutions not evident to others.
• Experiential: Concerns how well a task is performed based on familiarity; whether it is novel or automated.
• Practical or Contextual: Deals with mental activity involved in adapting to fit the context, being 'street smart' in the environment.

Construct of Intelligence and Multi-Dimensional Intelligence Theories

Thurston’s Group Factor Theory

Psychologist Louis L Thurston (1887-1955) proposed a theory of intelligence that focuses on nine different 'primary factors', rather than viewing intelligence as a single ability. These primary factors are independent of each other:

1. Spatial Factor: Involves visualizing shapes.
2. Verbal Factor: Concerned with comprehension of verbal ideas.
3. Word Fluency Factor: Involved in rapid generation of isolated words.
4. Numerical Factor: Ability to perform numerical calculations.
5. Memory Factor: Ability to memorize quickly.
6. Inductive Reasoning Factor: Ability to draw inferences.
7. Perceptual Factor: Ability to perceive objects accurately.
8. Deductive Reasoning Factor: Ability to use generalized rules.
9. Problem-Solving Ability Factor: Ability to solve problems independently.

The weakness of Thurston’s theory was that it did not consider a common factor.

Guilford’s Tri-Dimensional Theory

JP Guilford (1961) developed the Tri-Dimensional Theory of Intelligence, describing every intellectual activity in terms of three dimensions: operations (thinking processes), contents (symbols, terms), and products (ideas developed).

His model is represented by a cube with 120 primary abilities, formed by the combination of 4 contents, 5 operations, and 6 products (4×5×6 = 120). Guilford expanded this model later to include 150 factors (5×6×5 = 150).

For example, determining the day of the week from a calendar involves operations like convergent thinking, memory, and cognition, using semantics to understand printed words and figures.

Edward Thorndike (Multiple Factor Theory)

Edward Thorndike identified four key factors to measure intelligence:

• Level of difficulty of a task.
• Range of tasks of the same difficulty that can be consistently performed.
• Area of dissimilar situations at each difficulty level to which a person can respond effectively.
• Speed of response to carry out an activity.

Thorndike suggested that all intelligence tests should measure these four attributes.

George Kelley (Five Mental Abilities Theory)

George Kelley proposed that intelligence consists of five mental abilities:

1. Comprehension
2. Memorizing ability
3. Spatial ability
4. Numerical ability
5. Perceptual ability

This theory shares similarities with Thurstone’s and Gardner’s theories.

Characteristics of Intelligence

• Varies from person to person: Intelligence levels differ among individuals.
• Develops throughout life: Intelligence is a process that continues to develop over a person's lifetime.
• Improves learning from concrete to abstract: It helps learners progress from understanding concrete concepts to grasping abstract ideas.
• Enables differentiation between right and wrong: Intelligence enables individuals to make moral and ethical judgments.
• Plays a role in success: It contributes significantly to an individual's success in life.
• Enables learning from past experiences: Intelligence allows people to learn from previous experiences and apply that knowledge.
• Affected by heredity, environment, education, and experiences: These factors influence intelligence, but not gender.

Measurement of Intelligence

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

• Originally developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon.
• Revised in 1916 by Lewis Terman, introducing the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
• Cognitive ability test used for diagnosing developmental or intellectual deficiencies.
• Measures five factors: knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning.
• Revised in 1986 to make it applicable for adults as well as children; latest revision in 2003.
• Scores are scaled with an average of 100; scores above 130 are 'superior', between 90-110 are 'normal', and below 70 are 'mentally deficient'.

Wechsler Intelligence Tests

• Developed by David Wechsler in 1939 (WAIS) and 1949 (WISC), with revised versions (WAIS-R and WISC-R) still in use.
• Contain verbal and performance sub-scales which provide verbal and performance IQs respectively.
• Combined sub-scale scores give a total IQ, revealing strengths and weaknesses.