How did the Second World War in Europe develop? | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

The Origins of the Second World War

• The Second World War emerged as the most devastating conflict in human history.
• Years of escalating international tensions and aggressive expansions by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany culminated in the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939.
• Following this invasion, Britain and France promptly declared war on Germany within two days.

Underlying Factors Leading to Conflict

• The decisions that ultimately led to the outbreak of war were shaped by various ambitions, rivalries, fears, and anxieties that had developed over the two decades following the conclusion of the First World War.
• European powers were willing to engage in war to either expand their territories or safeguard what each nation perceived as crucial interests, great power status, international prestige, and national survival, albeit with varying perspectives.

The Significance of the First World War's Legacy

• The aftermath of the First World War and the subsequent peace settlements gave rise to new ambitions, rivalries, and tensions among nations.
• Post-war expectations were high, anticipating that the peace settlement would establish a new global order and prevent the recurrence of the catastrophic events of the First World War.
• The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919, led to the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at promoting peace and preventing future conflicts.
• However, the treaty was a fragile compromise as each of the victorious Allies - Britain, America, France, and Italy - sought to advance their individual interests, resulting in discontent and dissatisfaction.
• Germany bore the brunt of the treaty's provisions, being compelled to cede territory, disarm, and bear the financial burden of war reparations.
• The harsh terms of the treaty were widely criticized as excessively punitive by many in Britain and America, fueling immediate outrage and fostering long-lasting animosity in Germany.

Impact of Treaty of Versailles

• The aftermath of the Treaty of Versailles deeply affected German foreign and domestic policies.
• Feelings of defeat, humiliation, and injustice spurred calls for revising the treaty terms.
• This discontent fueled significant international political tensions throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
• The interwar period was marked by instability and insecurity, exacerbated by global economic collapse in 1929.

The Rise of Authoritarianism in Europe

• Political extremism surged across Europe due to the instability of the 1920s and 1930s.
• People sought authoritarian leaders as an alternative, shifting away from democratic ideals.

Italy under Benito Mussolini

• In Italy, Benito Mussolini ascended to power in 1922, instituting a fascist regime.
• State control extended over various facets of Italian society, consolidating power under the government.

Germany under Adolf Hitler

• Adolf Hitler rose to Chancellorship in Germany in 1933, establishing a totalitarian state under the Nazi party.
• Political dissent was violently suppressed, creating an environment of fear and oppression.
• Hitler capitalized on the national sentiment of German humiliation post-World War I.
• He pledged economic recovery, national rejuvenation, and a revision of the Treaty of Versailles to restore Germany's international standing.
• Germany's withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933 signaled a shift towards isolationism and militarization.
• In 1935, Hitler initiated German rearmament and reintroduced conscription, violating the terms of the Versailles Treaty.

Aggressive Foreign Policies

• Both Italy and Germany pursued expansionist policies that threatened the established post-war peace framework.
• Their ultranationalist governments aimed at territorial expansion, destabilizing the existing world order.

Italy and Germany on the March

• Italy invaded Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia) on 3 October 1935, leading to League of Nations intervention.
• Britain and France responded weakly with limited economic sanctions, pushing Italy closer to Germany.
• Hitler exploited the weak response by sending troops into the Rhineland on 7 March 1936.
• Britain perceived the occupation as non-threatening and did not respond militarily.
• France, feeling isolated and insecure, also did little to resist the occupation.
• Hitler's success in the Rhineland encouraged a more aggressive foreign policy, exacerbated by intervention in the Spanish Civil War.

Germany Expands

• Hitler's ambitions for German expansion became evident in 1938.
• German troops entered Austria on 12 March, leading to the country's annexation with local support.
• The Anschluss with Austria faced little international resistance.
• Hitler's demands for German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia triggered a crisis in September 1938.

The Creation of Czechoslovakia

• The diverse state of Czechoslovakia emerged post-World War I.
• German inhabitants in Czechoslovakia, mostly residing in the Sudetenland region, expressed a desire to reunite with Germany.
• In 1938, Hitler's threat of war loomed if the Sudetenland wasn't handed over to Germany.
• Britain and France, despite rearmament efforts, hesitated to challenge Hitler by force.
• Eventually, both countries conceded to the prospect of war if German forces entered Czech territory without international consensus.
• Hitler then consented to an international conference to address the Sudetenland crisis.

The Munich Agreement and Appeasement

• Leaders from Italy, Britain, France, and Germany convened in Munich during September 1938.
• An accord was reached, permitting Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland, with Britain obtaining a peace assurance from Hitler.
• Czechoslovakia, excluded from the talks, was compelled to accept the Munich Agreement.
• Appeasement, characterized by Britain's acquiescence to German expansion in the 1930s, stemmed from various factors including political, economic, and anti-war sentiments.
• British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain championed a peaceful resolution, influenced by the desire to avert another devastating world war.
• However, the limitations of appeasement became evident as perceived threats to Britain's security altered its policy stance.

Contextual Analysis

• Britain's rearmament process was ongoing, awaiting completion.
• The support from British Dominions remained uncertain.
• France, Britain's European ally, faced internal turmoil politically and economically.
• Public sentiment in Britain leaned heavily towards preventing another large-scale conflict.

A Crisis Grows

• After the Munich Agreement, the immediate threat of war was averted, allowing Britain time to prepare for potential conflict. Hitler's confidence, however, swelled post-Munich, as he was convinced that Britain and France wouldn't resist further German expansion by force.
• In March 1939, German forces occupied the remaining Czech territory, signaling to Britain and France that Hitler's territorial ambitions knew no bounds. This spurred them to take a stand against German domination of Europe, even if it meant using force.
• Recognizing Poland as Germany's likely next target, Britain and France pledged to defend Polish independence. Both countries, having renewed their entente in February, commenced joint military planning and continued to arm themselves. In April 1939, Britain implemented peacetime conscription for the first time in its history.
• Despite the preparations for war, both nations viewed it as a measure of last resort in dealing with the escalating crisis.

The Danzig Crisis

• As Germany finalized its annexation of Czechoslovakia, tensions mounted over Danzig (now Gdansk), a city crucial to the unfolding crisis. Post-World War I, Poland emerged as a new nation and was granted a 'corridor' through German territory for access to the sea.
• Danzig, formerly a German city, was designated a Free City under League of Nations' administration, serving as a pivotal port for Polish trade. The establishment of an independent Poland and the loss of Danzig fueled deep-seated animosity within Germany.

German-Polish Relations

• Background: In October 1938, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop held discussions with the Polish ambassador Josef Lipski regarding Danzig's status.
• Escalation: Tensions rose during a meeting between Adolf Hitler and Polish Foreign Minister Józef Beck in January 1939. Poland adamantly refused to yield on the Danzig issue.
• International Support: British and French assurances to defend Polish independence in March 1939 bolstered Polish resistance to German demands.
• Preparations for Invasion: In April 1939, Hitler ordered preparations for the invasion of Poland. He also solidified alliances with Japan and Italy.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

• Soviet Reevaluation: The Soviet Union, feeling threatened by German aggression and Japan, reconsidered its foreign policy in the late 1930s.
• Failed Negotiations: Despite discussions with Britain and France, talks collapsed due to mutual distrust.
• Nazi-Soviet Pact: On August 23, 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was signed, allowing Hitler to attack Poland without Soviet intervention. The pact also delineated spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.

Germany Invades Poland

• Following the Nazi-Soviet Pact, Britain and Poland formed a military alliance on 25 August. Despite hoping for peace, Britain prepared for war as Mussolini assured Hitler that Italy would not join the conflict.
• Hitler proposed safeguarding Britain's empire while pressing for a resolution concerning Poland. By 29 August, he outlined terms for a settlement to British ambassador Sir Nevile Henderson, demanding concessions and direct negotiations within 24 hours, both of which were rejected.
• The deadlock led to the German invasion of Poland commencing at 4:45 am on 1 September.

Britain and France Declare War on Germany

• Neville Chamberlain announced Britain's declaration of war on Germany on 3 September following an ultimatum that had lapsed without a response. The outbreak of war was anticipated due to escalating tensions in Europe and the perceived necessity to confront German aggression.
• War was seen as crucial to curbing Hitler's ambitions, which posed a direct threat to British and imperial security. The decision to go to war in 1939 was driven by the need to maintain the balance of power in Europe and safeguard Britain's global standing.