Nations gain and Expand their overseas empires in the nineteenth century | History for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11 PDF Download

Decline of Land-Based Empires and Rise of Nationalism

• The 19th and early 20th centuries saw a decline in the power of many land-based empires, coinciding with the rise of nationalism as a key organizing principle for societies globally.
• European and American nations pursued overseas empires, expanding into Africa and East Asia.
• Post-World War II, a wave of decolonization occurred, but "empires" remained significant, with economic power becoming more critical than political power.

Characteristics of Declining Territorial Empires

• These empires in Asia, Europe, and the Muslim world relied on military conquest to control vast lands adjacent to their homelands.
• They maintained civil and economic order in exchange for taxes on agricultural produce from conquered agrarian populations.
• Typically, these empires allowed their citizens to retain their languages, religions, and cultural practices.
• Captives from conquered lands were sometimes taken, such as the janissaries in the Ottoman Empire.

Early European Overseas Empires

• The Portuguese and Spanish established the first European overseas empires in the Azores and Canary Islands in the late 1400s, expanding to the Americas after 1492.
• The Spanish defeated indigenous empires like the Aztecs, Inca, and Maya, replacing native rulers with Spanish Viceroys.
• The British, French, Dutch, and others followed into the Caribbean and North America.
• European colonies in the Americas were controlled by their "mother" countries, sending resources like silver, gold, and agricultural products to Europe and often trading exclusively with the "mother" economy.

Economic Neo-Imperialism in the 19th Century

• In the 19th century, a new form of economic neo-imperialism emerged, especially in newly independent Latin American republics.
• These countries, though independent from Spanish and Portuguese empires, were economically dominated by European and U.S. investors.
• They continued to provide raw materials to the "Great Powers" in exchange for finished industrial goods.
• Many new nations became indebted to European banks and faced "gunboat diplomacy," where U.S. and European powers took over custom houses to enforce loan repayments.

Pre-World War I Context

• By the time World War I approached, the decline of land-based empires was nearly complete, while overseas empires were thriving.

Declining Land-Based Empires

• General Decline: Land-based empires began to decline significantly after the Napoleonic Wars, challenged by rising nationalism. Different cultural, religious, and linguistic groups within these empires sought more autonomy, leading to the creation of independent nation-states. Some empires that resisted change were conquered by expanding overseas powers.
• Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire, known as the “Sick Man of Europe,” declined gradually in the 19th century, surviving until World War I. It was bordered by Orthodox Christian Russia, the Catholic Habsburg Empire, and Shiite Iran. The Russians supported Orthodox Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians in their successful independence movements.
• Greek Independence: Greeks gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 1820s with support from Russia, Britain, and France. The Greek struggle inspired European Romantic writers and artists, including the English poet Lord Byron, who died supporting the Greek cause.
• Crimean War: Mid-19th-century disputes over Ottoman territory led to the Crimean War (1853-1856), where France, Britain, the Italian Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottomans opposed Russia. The war, featuring modern technology like railways and telegraphs, exposed Russia's weaknesses despite its large armies. Post-war, Russia had to remove its Black Sea naval fleet.
• Egyptian Independence and Suez Canal: Egypt gained practical independence under Muhammad Ali (1805-1848), who modernized the country. His son granted a concession to French businessman Ferdinand de Lesseps to build the Suez Canal (completed in 1869), connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Although initially opposed by Britain, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli secured British control of the canal in 1875, ensuring quicker access to India.
• Balkan Independence Movements: Inspired by Greek independence and encouraged by Russia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Bulgaria achieved near-complete independence from the Ottoman Empire by 1878. These new countries, though motivated by nationalism, faced difficulties with border disputes and integrating diverse ethnic and religious groups within their territories.

Russian Empire's Challenges and Reforms

• Post-Crimean War Realization:
  • The defeat in the Crimean War forced Russia to confront its military weaknesses and social backwardness.
  • Serfdom, which tied peasants to the land, was a major issue.
• Abolition of Serfdom:
  • Tsar Alexander II ended serfdom in 1861, similar to the U.S. Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
  • Former serfs, like freed slaves in the U.S., often found their new freedom limited in practice.
• Industrial Expansion:
  • Western European investment led to the growth of Russian industries and infrastructure, particularly in European Russia.
  • Slow political and social reforms led to revolutionary movements, often led by anarchists.
• Anarchist Movements:
  • Anarchists, opposing all forms of top-down control, assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881.
  • His son, Alexander III, rejected political reforms and was also assassinated by anarchists in 1894.
  • Nicholas II, Alexander III's son, resisted any limitations on his absolute power.
• Ethnic and Social Unrest:
  • The Russian Empire was home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, many of whom resisted "russification" efforts.
  • Groups like Poles, Finns, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, and Romanians sought independence or emigrated for better opportunities.
  • Jews faced severe discrimination and violent pogroms, leading many to emigrate to the U.S.
• Anti-Semitism and Pogroms:
  • The Tsarist regime encouraged anti-Semitism, blaming Jews for political and economic problems.
  • Jews were restricted in land ownership and certain professions.
  • Frequent pogroms from the 1880s to World War I, such as the 1905 Odessa pogrom, highlighted Tsarist Russia's backwardness and received international condemnation.

Habsburg Dynasty and the Austro-Hungarian Empire

• Historical Rule:
  • The Habsburgs ruled Austria since the late 1200s and controlled the Spanish Empire, including its American colonies, through strategic marriages in the 1500s and 1600s.
  • The Spanish Habsburg line ended in 1700, but the Austrian Habsburgs reigned until 1918.
• Territorial Dominance:
  • Post-Napoleonic era, the Habsburg Empire dominated southeastern Europe, bordering the Ottoman and Russian Empires.
  • The Tsars supported Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule, while Habsburg monarchs supported Catholics in the region, like the Croats.
• Religious and National Unity:
  • The Habsburgs, as Holy Roman Emperors until 1815, aimed to maintain Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation.
  • Despite religious unity, the empire faced growing nationalism among its diverse ethnic groups: Hungarians, Czechs, Ukrainians, Poles, Slovaks, Romanians, Jews, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, and Albanians.
• Revolutions of 1848:
  • Nationalist and socialist uprisings nearly dissolved the Habsburg Empire.
  • While the revolutionaries didn't achieve all their goals, they abolished serfdom, granted more regional autonomy, and led to Emperor Ferdinand I's abdication in favor of Franz Josef.
• Dual Monarchy and Nationalist Struggles:
  • The 1860s unification of Italy and Germany enabled the Hungarians, the largest minority, to gain near-independence.
  • In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established as a dual monarchy with separate Austrian and Hungarian parliaments; the Austrian emperor handled foreign policy.
  • This compromise did not resolve nationalist tensions, as Romanians demanded more autonomy from Budapest and Czechs from Vienna.

The Unification of Germany and Its Impact

• Formation of the German Empire:
  • Germany unified in 1870, combining an agricultural east with an industrialized west.
  • The new nation, called the German Empire (Deutsches Reich), emerged as a major European power, challenging Great Britain and France.
  • This upset the post-Napoleonic balance of power, contributing to the causes of the two world wars in the 20th century.
• Role of Otto von Bismarck:
  • Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia from 1862, was the architect of German unification.
  • Initially indifferent to the unification aspirations of the 1848 revolutionaries, Bismarck eventually pursued unification to counter Austria-Hungary.
  • He used wars strategically to unite the German states under Prussian leadership.
• Wars Leading to Unification:
  • In 1864, Bismarck waged a brief war with Denmark, aligning northern German states with Prussia.
  • The 1866 war with Austria further solidified these states in a confederation under Prussian King Wilhelm I.
  • Simultaneously, Italy seized the opportunity to claim Hapsburg territories.
• Incorporation of Southern German States:
  • Bismarck antagonized Napoleon III of France to draw in the Catholic southern German states.
  • Napoleon III, expecting neutrality from German states and Austrian support, found neither.
  • Prussia's well-trained army quickly defeated the French, capturing Napoleon III and advancing into France.
• Establishment of the German Empire:
  • In 1871, Bismarck orchestrated a meeting of German princes at the Palace of Versailles.
  • They declared a unified German state with Prussian King Wilhelm I as Emperor.
• Diplomatic Repercussions:
  • The unification altered European diplomatic relations, fostering French-German antagonism and reshaping alliances.
  • The Franco-Prussian War was the first of three major conflicts between France and Germany over 75 years, causing massive casualties.
• Long-Term Outcomes:
  • Despite historical conflicts, France and Germany have become strong allies in recent decades, underpinning the European Union.
  • This reconciliation offers hope for other global conflicts, suggesting that former enemies can eventually become partners.

Rising Overseas Empires: The British Empire and Its Dominions

Canada: Gradual Independence

• Gradual Independence:
  • Unlike the American colonies, Canada gained independence slowly without revolution.
  • The British North America Act of 1867 created the Dominion of Canada, combining Quebec, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and New Brunswick.
  • John A. Macdonald, the first Prime Minister, expanded Canada by purchasing the Northwest Territories in 1869 and convincing Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, and British Columbia to join the Dominion.
• Transcontinental Connection:
  • The Canadian Pacific Railroad, completed in 1885, was crucial in connecting Canada's eastern and western regions.
  • This railroad, running close to the U.S. border, remains vital for Canadian connectivity, with 90% of Canada's population living within 100 miles of the U.S. border.

Australia and New Zealand: Settlement and Conflict

• Australia:
  • Initially settled by convicts in the late 18th century, Australia became a British colony.
  • The native aborigines were displaced, retreating into the continent until increasing settler contact created conflict.
• New Zealand:
  • Settled in the early 19th century, often through private companies, leading to conflicts with the native Maori.
  • Relations mirrored those in the western U.S., with treaties often broken and lands taken by settlers.
  • In recent decades, Maori rights and culture have been increasingly respected and celebrated as integral to New Zealand identity.

India: The Jewel in the Crown

• British East India Company:
  • The Company capitalized on the declining Mughal Empire in the 1700s, gradually taking control of Indian principalities.
  • By the mid-19th century, the Company controlled most of mainland India, including present-day Pakistan, Burma, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
• Economic Transformation:
  • India’s economy was reorganized to serve British interests, focusing on cultivating tea, coffee, cotton, and opium.
  • The Company’s dominance ended after the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, leading to direct British Crown control in 1858.
• Imperial Model:
  • India became a model colony, providing raw materials and resources while serving as a captive market for British goods.
  • British administration relied on trained local elites, creating native armies, police forces, and administrators.
  • British-established schools educated Indians in English, engineering, science, and British law.

Indian Influence and Migration

• Indian Diaspora:
  • Indian migrants followed British expansion, significantly contributing to local economies in new colonies in Africa and the Caribbean.
  • Indian immigrants operated railways, postal services, and built infrastructure in these colonies.
  • Notable communities formed, such as in Guyana, where over 40% of the population is of Indian descent.
• Mahatma Gandhi:
  • An example of a native educated to serve the Empire, Gandhi studied law in London and worked as a lawyer in South Africa before advocating for Indian independence.
  • This pattern of educated local elites eventually demanding greater autonomy was seen across European empires, influencing figures like Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam.

The British Empire's model of colonial administration, reliance on local elites, and economic exploitation significantly shaped the political and economic landscapes of its colonies. The gradual push for independence by educated local elites eventually led to the decolonization movements of the 20th century.

The United States: Slavery, Expansion, and Civil War

Slavery and Division

• Founding Ideals:
  • Some Founders anticipated slavery's gradual disappearance, but Eli Whitney's cotton gin revived the institution.
  • The "three-fifths compromise" and racial discrimination persisted, hindering progress towards equality.
• Colonization Schemes:
  • Some whites supported sending freed blacks back to Africa, leading to the establishment of Liberia by white abolitionists.
  • Liberia's capital, Monrovia, was named after U.S. President James Monroe, despite his slaveholding background.

Westward Expansion and Conflict

• Native American Displacement:
  • Cotton expansion fueled a hunger for new land, leading to conflicts with Native American tribes.
  • The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the "civilized tribes" out of the South, resulting in the tragic Trail of Tears.
• Texas Independence and Annexation:
  • Mexico allowed Anglo settlement in Texas but insisted on the abolition of slavery.
  • Texas rebelled and gained independence in 1836, later joining the United States in 1845.
  • The Mexican-American War resulted in U.S. victory and the acquisition of vast territories, including California, Arizona, and New Mexico.

Consequences of Expansion

• Gold Rush and Chinese Exclusion:
  • The discovery of gold in California attracted "Forty-niners" from around the world, including China.
  • Chinese laborers faced discrimination and were eventually barred from immigrating to the U.S. by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.
• Political Turmoil:
  • The rapid expansion of states upset the balance between slave and free states, leading to increasing tensions.
  • Violence in Kansas and political polarization culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the secession of Southern states, triggering the Civil War.

The United States' expansion westward brought economic prosperity but also exacerbated social divisions, especially concerning slavery and the treatment of minorities. These tensions ultimately led to the Civil War, which would profoundly reshape the nation's history and identity.

The Civil War: Technology and Global Politics

Technological Advances

• Modern Warfare:
  • The Civil War introduced new technologies like railroads, steamboats, and the electric telegraph to the battlefield.
  • Railroads and steamboats facilitated troop transportation, while the telegraph improved military communication and disseminated war news rapidly.
• Northern Advantage:
  • Industrialized northern states benefited more from these advancements, as they could produce more war materiel and mobilize troops more efficiently than the agrarian South.

International Relations

• European Involvement:
  • Southern hopes for Confederate independence relied on European support, particularly from Great Britain and France.
  • Britain hesitated to recognize the Confederacy, and French intervention in Mexico to create a pro-Confederate monarchy failed with the defeat at the Battle of Puebla in 1862.
• Misinterpretation of History:
  • Some U.S. publishers downplay the role of slavery in the Civil War, but historical evidence refutes claims that it was fought over states' rights or property rights.
  • The Confederacy seceded explicitly to preserve slavery, a fact that is often obscured in certain narratives.

Neo-Imperialism in Latin America

Economic Dependence and Foreign Influence

• Debt and Dependency:
  • Latin American countries quickly became indebted to European powers, particularly British banks, post-independence.
  • Economic development was hindered by reliance on a few exports, with market prices subject to international fluctuations.
• Foreign Dominance:
  • Neo-imperialism emerged, allowing foreign powers to exert influence without direct colonization.
  • British, French, and later U.S. businesses invested heavily in Latin American industries, extending economic control.

Economic and Political Impact

• Brazilian Coffee Economy:
  • Brazil's economy was heavily reliant on coffee production, leading to vulnerability to price fluctuations and frost damage.
  • The abolition of slavery in Brazil, achieved peacefully, was influenced by economic changes and military needs during conflicts.
• Chilean Nitrate Dominance:
  • Chile's control over nitrates gave it significant geopolitical power in the Pacific region.
  • The War of the Pacific reinforced Chile's naval dominance and its role in regional politics.

International Relations and Geopolitics

• U.S. Interests in Panama:
  • U.S. involvement in Panama, particularly during a rebellion in 1885, showcased the importance of naval power.
  • The incident spurred U.S. interest in building a canal through Panama, leading to the eventual construction of the Panama Canal.

U.S. Imperialism

• Cuban Independence Movement:
  • After Latin American independence wars, Cuba remained under Spanish control, leading to a renewed push for independence led by José Martí.
  • Martí organized support from the United States, and a rebellion began in 1895, resulting in guerrilla warfare against the Spanish.
• Role of Yellow Journalism:
  • Sensationalist reporting by major newspapers, such as Hearst and Pulitzer's yellow journalism, exaggerated Spain's atrocities in Cuba to sway public opinion towards war.
  • The sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, initially blamed on Spain, fueled public outrage and contributed to the declaration of war.
• Spanish-American War:
  • The conflict, known as a "splendid little war," saw significant naval engagements, resulting in the defeat of the Spanish fleet.
  • The Treaty of Paris in 1898 granted Cuba independence and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.
• Aftermath and U.S. Imperialism:
  • Cuba's independence was overshadowed by the imposition of the Platt Amendment, allowing U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs.
  • Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were annexed by the United States, leading to conflicts with Filipino independence fighters.
• Panama Canal:
  • The Spanish-American War highlighted the strategic importance of building a canal in Panama to facilitate naval movements.
  • The U.S. acquired the rights to the canal zone from Colombia, eventually engineering Panama's independence to secure control over the project.
  • The Panama Canal, completed in 1914, became a vital link for global maritime trade and remained under U.S. jurisdiction until 1999.
• United Fruit Company (UFC):
  • Lorenzo Dow Baker initiated the banana industry by selling bananas in Jersey City in 1870, while Minor C. Keith planted banana trees alongside his railroad in Costa Rica in 1873.
  • The merging of Baker's Boston Fruit Company with Keith's operations led to the formation of UFC in 1899, which quickly gained control of 80% of bananas reaching the U.S.
• Expansion and Influence:
  • UFC expanded beyond bananas, venturing into travel services, postal services, and telecommunications, exerting significant influence in Central American countries.
  • By 1930, UFC was the largest employer in Central America, owning over 3.5 million acres of land, and worth over $200 million.
• Labor Exploitation and Massacre:
  • In 1928, a strike at UFC plantations in Colombia was brutally suppressed, leading to the Banana Massacre, immortalized by Gabriel García Márquez in "One Hundred Years of Solitude."
  • Labor unrest continued, with UFC attempting to undermine unions through divisive tactics and portraying them as communist revolutionaries.
• Sam Zemurray's Takeover:
  • Sam Zemurray acquired UFC through a hostile takeover in 1933, after founding the Cuyamel Fruit Company and engaging in various business and political maneuvers in Honduras.
  • Zemurray's history included challenging the UFC monopoly in Honduras, involvement in a military coup, and opposition to union activities.
• U.S. Intervention:
  • UFC's activities in "banana republics" mirrored U.S. Marine interventions in other Caribbean countries between 1903 and 1933.
  • U.S. troops were sent to Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti to suppress unrest and maintain stability, often training local police forces who later assumed power.

The European “Scramble for Africa”

• Motivations for European Scramble for Africa:
  • Driven by international rivalries and the desire to exploit untapped resources and captive consumer markets.
  • Africa represented the last frontier for European exploration and colonization, following the colonization of other regions like South Asia and the Americas.
• Belgian and German Initiatives:
  • Belgian King Leopold and the German Empire initiated the scramble in the 1870s by sending explorers to claim African territory.
  • European powers like Portugal, Britain, and France quickly followed suit, making agreements with local leaders and engaging in conflicts to expand their colonial holdings.
• Berlin Conference of 1884-85:
  • Organized by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to establish boundaries and regulate colonial claims in Africa.
  • No African representation; resulted in arbitrary boundaries that often cut across ethnic and political lines, leading to future conflicts.
• Brutality and Resistance:
  • European imperialism in Africa often involved brutal treatment of indigenous populations, including forced labor, violence, and exploitation.
  • Notable atrocities include the Congo Free State under King Leopold's rule, where workers faced mutilation and harsh conditions.
• South African Colonial History:
  • South Africa's colonization followed a unique path, beginning with Dutch settlers establishing a settler colony in the mid-1600s.
  • Conflict between Dutch settlers (Boers) and the British, as well as resistance from indigenous groups like the Zulus, shaped South Africa's colonial history.
• Cecil Rhodes and Imperialism:
  • Cecil Rhodes, a prominent figure in British imperialism, epitomized the philosophy of imperialism and white supremacy.
  • He amassed wealth through diamond mining and advocated for British expansion in Africa, citing the belief in the superiority of the "finest race in the world."
• Technological Superiority and Imperialism:
  • British, French, and American military superiority over less developed nations was largely due to advanced weaponry and transportation technology.
  • Examples include the use of armored steamships during the Opium Wars, Gatling machine guns in Africa and the Middle East, and Maxim guns during the conquest of the Ndebele kingdom in Rhodesia.
• Telegraph Communication:
  • Telegraphy, pioneered by figures like Samuel Morse, revolutionized communication but required undersea cables to connect colonies.
  • British dominance in undersea cable laying allowed for rapid transmission of information between colonies and the metropole, aiding colonial administration and military operations.
• Scientific Racism and Social Darwinism:
  • Europeans used theories of scientific racism and Social Darwinism to justify their imperialist endeavors and subjugation of conquered peoples.
  • Exploitation of tribal animosities and creation of artificial divisions furthered European control and contributed to future conflicts, as seen in Rwanda's history.
• Role of Oil in Imperialism:
  • Oil, initially used as a lubricant, became central to the Industrial Revolution with the rise of internal combustion engines.
  • Corporations like Standard Oil, Anglo-Persian Oil Company, and Royal Dutch Shell dominated the global oil business and wielded significant economic and political influence in oil-producing regions like the Middle East.
• Impact on Colonial Politics:
  • Oil discoveries in regions like the Arabian Peninsula transformed sparsely-populated areas into geopolitical hotspots.
  • Oil companies exerted influence over the politics of countries where they operated, shaping policies and often collaborating with colonial administrations.

China and Japan

• Chinese Decline and Japanese Industrialization:
  • China's decline continued as European powers established spheres of influence and Japan rapidly industrialized.
  • Lack of key industrial resources like coal, iron ore, and oil prompted Japan to pursue imperial expansion and claim territories such as Taiwan and Korea.
• The Boxer Rebellion:
  • The Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901, led by anti-colonial martial artists known as the Boxers, aimed to expel foreigners and Christian missionaries from China.
  • A multinational force, including European powers, the U.S., and Japan, intervened to suppress the rebellion, resulting in significant loss of life and financial indemnities imposed on China.
• Russo-Japanese War:
  • The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 marked Japan's emergence as a major global power, defeating Russia and gaining international recognition.
  • The war, concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, highlighted U.S. involvement in East Asian affairs and Japan's dominance in Korea and parts of China.
• Internal Challenges in China:
  • Internal challenges in China, including the weakening Qing dynasty and the rise of warlord-controlled regions, underscored the nation's fragmentation and vulnerability.
  • The Empress Dowager Cixi's rule, characterized by palace intrigues and periodic reforms, ended in 1908 with the installation of Emperor Puyi, paving the way for modernizing forces.
• Sun Yat-sen and the Xinhai Revolution:
  • Sun Yat-sen, a key figure in Chinese modernization, advocated for the end of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of a Chinese republic.
  • Sun's leadership and alliances, forged during his exile in Hawaii, Japan, and Malaysia, culminated in the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, overthrowing the Qing regime.