Case Study Based Questions: Women, Caste and Reform | Social Studies (SST) Class 8 PDF Download

Case Study 1

From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions about social customs and practices taking on a new character. One important reason for this was the development of new forms of communication. For the first time, books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed. These were far cheaper and far more accessible than the manuscripts that you have read about in Class VII. Therefore ordinary people could read these, and many of them could also write and express their ideas in their own languages. All kinds of issues – social, political, economic and religious – could now be debated and discussed by men (and sometimes by women as well) in the new cities. The discussions could reach out to a wider public, and could become linked to movements for social change. These debates were often initiated by Indian reformers and reform groups. One such reformer was Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833). He founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta. People such as Rammohun Roy are described as reformers because they felt that changes were necessary in society, and unjust practices needed to be done away with. They thought that the best way to ensure such changes was by persuading people to give up old practices and adopt a new way of life.

Rammohun Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring about greater freedom and equality for women. He wrote about the way women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the home and the kitchen, and not allowed to move out and become educated. Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. He began a campaign against the practice of sati. Rammohun Roy was well versed in Sanskrit, Persian and several other Indian and Europeon languages. He tried to show through his writings that the practice of widow burning had no sanction in ancient texts. By the early nineteenth century, as you have read in Chapter 6, many British officials had also begun to criticise Indian traditions and customs. They were therefore, more than willing to listen to Rammohun who was reputed to be a learned man. In 1829, sati was banned. The strategy adopted by Rammohun was used by later reformers as well. Whenever they wished to challenge a practice that seemed harmful, they tried to find a verse or sentence in the ancient sacred texts that supported their point of view. They then suggested that the practice as it existed at present was against early tradition. For instance, one of the most famous reformers, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage. Those who were against the remarriage of widows opposed Vidyasagar, and even boycotted him.

Question and Answer: 1 Mark

Q1: Who founded ‘Brahma Sabha’ in Calcutta?
Ans: Raja Rammohun Roy founded a reform association known as the ‘Brahma Sabha’ in Calcutta.

Q2: Which kind of knowledge did Rammohun Roy spread in the country?
Ans: Rammohun Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring about greater freedom and equality for women.

Question and Answer: 2 Mark

Q1: Rammohun Roy was well versed in which languages?
Ans: Rammohun Roy was well versed in Sanskrit, Persian and several other Indian and European languages.

Q2: Who suggested that widows could remarry? And when was the law passed?
Ans: one of the most famous reformers, Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856.

Case Study 2

By the second half of the nineteenth century, the movement in favour of widow remarriage spread to other parts of the country. In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow remarriage. Around the same time, young intellectuals and reformers in Bombay pledged themselves to working for the same cause. In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called Arya Samaj, also supported widow remarriage. Yet, the number of widows who actually remarried remained low. Those who married were not easily accepted in society and conservative groups continued to oppose the new law.

Many of the reformers felt that education for girls was necessary in order to improve the condition of women. Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. When the first schools were opened in the mid-nineteenth century, many people were afraid of them. They feared that schools would take girls away from home, prevent them from doing their domestic duties. Moreover, girls had to travel through public places in order to reach school. Many people felt that this would have a corrupting influence on them. They felt that girls should stay away from public spaces. Therefore, throughout the nineteenth century, most educated women were taught at home by liberal fathers or husbands. Sometimes women taught themselves. Do you remember what you read about Rashsundari Debi in your book Social and Political Life last year? She was one of those who secretly learned to read and write in the flickering light of candles at night. In the latter part of the century, schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra. In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic. They were taught by women who came home to teach. Some reformers such as Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women’s education. The first Urdu novels began to be written from the late nineteenth century. Amongst other things, these were meant to encourage women to read about religion and domestic management in a language they could understand.

Question and Answer: 1 Mark

Q1: When did Dayanand Saraswati found the Arya Samaj?
Ans: Dayanand Saraswati found the Arya Samaj in 1875.

Q2: From when did the first Urdu novels begin to be written ?
Ans: The first Urdu novels begin to be written from the late nineteenth century.

Question and Answer: 2 Mark

Q1: What did women learn to read in aristocratic Muslim households?
Ans: In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic.

Q2: Write about Rashsundari Debi.
Ans: Rashsundari Debi was one of those who secretly learned to read and write in the flickering light of candles at night.

Case Study 3

From the early twentieth century, Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education among women. They founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh. Another remarkable woman, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta. She was a fearless critic of conservative ideas, arguing that religious leaders of every faith accorded an inferior place to women. By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, some became teachers. Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the place of women in society. Tarabai Shinde, a woman educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the social differences between men and women. Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by their husbands’ relatives. Here women were trained so that they could support themselves economically. Needless to say, all this more than alarmed the orthodox. For instance, many Hindu nationalists felt that Hindu women were adopting Western ways and that this would corrupt Hindu culture and erode family values. Orthodox Muslims were also worried about the impact of these changes. As you can see, by the end of the nineteenth century, women themselves were actively working for reform. They wrote books, edited magazines, founded schools and training centres, and set up women’s associations. From the early twentieth century, they formed political pressure groups to push through laws for female suffrage (the right to vote) and better health care and education for women. Some of them joined various kinds of nationalist and socialist movements from the 1920s. In the twentieth century, leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose lent their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women. Nationalist leaders promised that there would be full suffrage for all men and women after Independence. However, till then they asked women to concentrate on the anti-British struggles.

Some of the social reformers we have been discussing also criticised caste inequalities. Rammohun Roy translated an old Buddhist text that was critical of caste. The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual equality of all castes. In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste. Many of these reformers and members of reform associations were people of upper castes. Often, in secret meetings, these reformers would violate caste taboos on food and touch, in an effort to get rid of the hold of caste prejudice in their lives.

Question and Answer: 1 Mark

Q1: When did Indian women begin to enter universities?
Ans: By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities.

Q2: Where did Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain start schools for Muslim girls?
Ans: Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

Question and Answer: 2 Mark

Q1: Who found Widow’s home at Poone? And what was the purpose of that?
Ans: Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by their husbands’ relatives. Here women were trained so that they could support themselves economically.

Q2: What did Prarthana Samaj adhere?
Ans: The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual equality of all castes.

Case Study 4

Two hundred years ago things were very different. Most children were married off at an early age. Both Hindu and Muslim men could marry more than one wife. In some parts of the country, widows were praised if they chose death by burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands. Women who died in this manner, whether willingly or otherwise, were called “sati”, meaning virtuous women. Women’s rights to property were also restricted. Besides, most women had virtually no access to education. In many parts of the country people believed that if a woman was educated, she would become a widow. Differences between men and women were not the only ones in society. In most regions, people were divided along lines of caste. Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as “upper castes”. Others, such as traders and moneylenders (often referred to as Vaishyas) were placed after them. Then came peasants, and artisans such as weavers and potters (referred to as Shudras). At the lowest rung were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean or worked at jobs that upper castes considered “polluting”, that is, it could lead to the loss of caste status. The upper castes also treated many of these groups at the bottom as “untouchable”. They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used by the upper castes, or bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed. They were seen as inferior human beings.

Q1: What were some prevailing practices regarding women’s rights and status in society two hundred years ago?
Ans: Two hundred years ago, most women were married off early, and Hindu and Muslim men could have multiple wives. Widows were often expected to commit “sati” by burning themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre. Women had limited property rights and lacked access to education.

Q2: How were people divided along caste lines in society during that time?
Ans: In society, there were divisions based on caste. Brahmins and Kshatriyas considered themselves “upper castes,” while traders and moneylenders (Vaishyas) were ranked lower. Peasants and artisans like weavers and potters (Shudras) followed, while those with “polluting” jobs were at the lowest rung and treated as “untouchables.”

Q3: What were the social implications for those considered “untouchable”?
Ans: People regarded as “untouchable” faced discrimination and restrictions. They were not allowed to enter temples, use wells used by upper castes, or bathe in ponds used by them. They were seen as inferior human beings.

Q4: What were the prevailing beliefs about educating women during that time?
Ans: In many parts of the country, people believed that educating women would lead to them becoming widows. This belief restricted most women’s access to education.

Q5: How were widows who chose to self-immolate on their husband’s funeral pyre regarded in society?
Ans: Widows who chose self-immolation, called “sati,” were considered virtuous women. Society praised them for their sacrifice, regardless of whether they willingly chose it or not.

Case Study 5 

From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions about social customs and practices taking on a new character. One important reason for this was the development of new forms of communication. For the first time, books, newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed. These were far cheaper and far more accessible than the manuscripts. Therefore ordinary people could read these, and many of them could also write and express their ideas in their own languages. All kinds of issues – social, political, economic and religious – could now be debated and discussed by men (and sometimes by women as well) in the new cities. The discussions could reach out to a wider public, and could become linked to movements for social change. These debates were often initiated by Indian reformers and reform groups. One such reformer was Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833). He founded a reform association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta. People such as Rammohun Roy are described as reformers because they felt that changes were necessary in society, and unjust practices needed to be done away with. They thought that the best way to ensure such changes was by persuading people to give up old practices and adopt a new way of life. Rammohun Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring about greater freedom and equality for women. He wrote about the way women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the home and the kitchen, and not allowed to move out and become educated.

Q1: What altered the nature of conversations and arguments regarding social practices and norms in the early nineteenth century?
Ans: To read and communicate their thoughts in their native tongues, common people were able to participate in discussions more easily thanks to the emergence of new channels of communication like books, newspapers, magazines, flyers, and pamphlets.

Q2: What was Raja Rammohun Roy’s position as a reformer and who was he?
Ans: Raja Rammohun Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha (later Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta and was considered a reformer because he believed in the necessity of social changes and eliminating unjust practices. He advocated spreading Western education and pushing for greater freedom and equality for women.

Q3: How did new communication mediums influence social discussions and movements?
Ans: The availability of cheaper and more accessible printed materials allowed debates on social, political, economic, and religious issues to reach a wider audience. These discussions often linked to social change movements.

Q4: What was Raja Rammohun Roy’s vision for women’s empowerment?
Ans: Raja Rammohun Roy advocated for women’s greater freedom and equality by challenging traditional practices that confined them to domestic roles and restricted their education. He believed in empowering women through education and social change.

Q5: What were the objectives of reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy regarding societal changes?
Ans: Reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy aimed to convince people to give up archaic practices and adopt modern lifestyles. Through social awareness and education, they hoped to affect constructive social change.

Case Study 6

Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. He began a campaign against the practice of sati. Rammohun Roy was well versed in Sanskrit, Persian and several other Indian and Europeon languages. He tried to show through his writings that the practice of widow burning had no sanction in ancient texts. By the early nineteenth century, as you have read in Chapter 6, many British officials had also begun to criticise Indian traditions and customs. They were therefore, more than willing to listen to Rammohun who was reputed to be a learned man. In 1829, sati was banned. The strategy adopted by Rammohun was used by later reformers as well. Whenever they wished to challenge a practice that seemed harmful, they tried to find a verse or sentence in the ancient sacred texts that supported their point of view. They then suggested that the practice as it existed at present was against early tradition. For instance, one of the most famous reformers, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage. Those who were against the remarriage of widows opposed Vidyasagar, and even boycotted him. By the second half of the nineteenth century, the movement in favour of widow remarriage spread to other parts of the country. In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow remarriage. Around the same time, young intellectuals and reformers in Bombay pledged themselves to working for the same cause. In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called Arya Samaj, also supported widow remarriage. Yet, the number of widows who actually remarried remained low. Those who married were not easily accepted in society and conservative groups continued to oppose the new law.

Q1: What problem moved Rammohun Roy to start a campaign against the practice of sati?
Ans: Rammohun Roy was deeply concerned about the difficulties faced by widows in society, which led him to campaign against the practice of sati (widow burning).

Q2: How did Rammohun Roy challenge the practice of sati through his writings?
Ans: Rammohun Roy used his knowledge of Sanskrit, Persian, and other languages to demonstrate that the practice of sati had no support in ancient texts, thus questioning its validity.

Q3: How did reformers like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar challenge harmful practices?
Ans: Reformers like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar used ancient texts to advocate widow remarriage, suggesting that the current practice went against early traditions. This approach helped pass a law in 1856 permitting widow remarriage.

Q4: Which regions and reformers in India supported widow remarriage?
Ans: In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow remarriage. In Bombay, young intellectuals pledged to work for the cause, and Swami Dayanand Saraswati’s Arya Samaj in the north also supported it.

Q5: Despite the legal permission for widow remarriage, why did its prevalence remain low?
Ans: Widows who remarried were not easily accepted in society, and conservative groups opposed the new law, which hindered the widespread acceptance of widow remarriage.

Case Study 7

Many of the reformers felt that education for girls was necessary in order to improve the condition of women. Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. When the first schools were opened in the mid-nineteenth century, many people were afraid of them. They feared that schools would take girls away from home, prevent them from doing their domestic duties. Moreover, girls had to travel through public places in order to reach school. Many people felt that this would have a corrupting influence on them. They felt that girls should stay away from public spaces. Therefore, throughout the nineteenth century, most educated women were taught at home by liberal fathers or husbands. Sometimes women taught themselves. Do you remember what you read about Rashsundari Debi in your book Social and Political Life last year? She was one of those who secretly learned to read and write in the flickering light of candles at night. In the latter part of the century, schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra. In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic. They were taught by women who came home to teach. Some reformers such as Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women’s education. The first Urdu novels began to be written from the late nineteenth century. Amongst other things, these were meant to encourage women to read about religion and domestic management in a language they could understand.

Q1: Why did many reformers think it was important for girls to attend school?
Ans: Many reformers believed that educating girls would enhance the status of women. To advance education and female emancipation, they founded schools for girls in Calcutta and Bombay.

Q2: Why did people in the middle of the nineteenth century fear girls’ schools?
Ans: People were worried that schools would pull females away from their homes and prohibit them from performing household chores. They thought females travelling for school through public areas would have a corrupting influence on them.

Q3: How were most educated women in the nineteenth century taught?
Ans: In the nineteenth century, most educated women were taught at home by liberal fathers or husbands. Some women taught themselves, as seen in the example of Rashsundari Debi who secretly learned to read and write.

Q4: Who established schools for girls in Punjab and Maharashtra in the latter part of the century?
Ans: In the latter part of the nineteenth century, schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra.

Q5: How did some reformers reinterpret verses from the Koran to advocate for women’s education?
Ans: Some reformers, like Mumtaz Ali, reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women’s education in aristocratic Muslim households in North India. Women were taught to read the Koran in Arabic by visiting female teachers.

Case Study 8

From the early twentieth century, Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education among women. They founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh. Another remarkable woman, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta. She was a fearless critic of conservative ideas, arguing that religious leaders of every faith accorded an inferior place to women. By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, some became teachers. Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the place of women in society. Tarabai Shinde, a woman educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the social differences between men and women. Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had been treated badly by their husbands’ relatives. Here women were trained so that they could support themselves economically. Needless to say, all this more than alarmed the orthodox. For instance, many Hindu nationalists felt that Hindu women were adopting Western ways and that this would corrupt Hindu culture and erode family values. Orthodox Muslims were also worried about the impact of these changes. By the end of the nineteenth century, women themselves were actively working for reform. They wrote books, edited magazines, founded schools and training centres, and set up women’s associations. From the early twentieth century, they formed political pressure groups to push through laws for female suffrage (the right to vote) and better health care and education for women. Some of them joined various kinds of nationalist and socialist movements from the 1920s. In the twentieth century, leaders such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose lent their support to demands for greater equality and freedom for women. Nationalist leaders promised that there would be full suffrage for all men and women after Independence. However, till then they asked women to concentrate on the anti-British struggles.

Q1: How did Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain contribute to women’s education?
Ans: The Begums of Bhopal founded a girls’ school in Aligarh, while Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta. She was a fearless critic of conservative ideas and advocated for women’s education.

Q2: How did Indian women in the late 19th century challenge societal norms?
Ans: Indian women began entering universities, becoming doctors and teachers. Many wrote and published critical views on women’s place in society, such as Tarabai Shinde’s book “Stripurushtulna” and Pandita Ramabai’s writings on the mistreatment of Hindu women.

Q3: What were the concerns of Hindu nationalists and orthodox Muslims regarding women’s changing roles?
Ans: Hindu nationalists feared that women adopting Western ways would erode family values and corrupt Hindu culture. Orthodox Muslims were also worried about the impact of societal changes.

Q4: What initiatives did women take in the early twentieth century for their rights?
Ans: Women formed political pressure groups advocating for female suffrage, better healthcare, and education. They founded schools, training centers, women’s associations, and actively participated in nationalist and socialist movements.

Q5: How did nationalist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose support women’s demands?
Ans: Nationalist leaders supported women’s demands for greater equality and freedom. They promised full suffrage for men and women after Independence, urging women to focus on anti-British struggles until then.

Case Study 9

Rammohun Roy translated an old Buddhist text that was critical of caste. The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual equality of all castes. In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste. Many of these reformers and members of reform associations were people of upper castes. Often, in secret meetings, these reformers would violate caste taboos on food and touch, in an effort to get rid of the hold of caste prejudice in their lives. There were also others who questioned the injustices of the caste social order. During the course of the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries began setting up schools for tribal groups and “lower”-caste children. These children were thus equipped with some resources to make their way into a changing world. At the same time, the poor began leaving their villages to look for jobs that were opening up in the cities. There was work in the factories that were coming up, and jobs in municipalities. Think of the new demands of labour this created. Drains had to be dug, roads laid, buildings constructed, and cities cleaned. This required coolies, diggers, carriers, bricklayers, sewage cleaners, sweepers, palanquin bearers, rickshaw pullers. Where did this labour come from? The poor from the villages and small towns, many of them from low castes, began moving to the cities where there was a new demand for labour. Some also went to work in plantations in Assam, Mauritius, Trinidad and Indonesia. Work in the new locations was often very hard. But the poor, the people from low castes, saw this as an opportunity to get away from the oppressive hold that upper-caste landowners exercised over their lives and the daily humiliation they suffered. There were other jobs too. The army, for instance, offered opportunities. A number of Mahar people, who were regarded as untouchable, found jobs in the Mahar Regiment. The father of B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the Dalit movement, taught at an army school.

Q1: How did Rammohun Roy and the Prarthana Samaj challenge caste prejudice?
Ans: Rammohun Roy translated a Buddhist text criticizing caste, while the Prarthana Samaj, following Bhakti tradition, believed in the spiritual equality of all castes, aiming to abolish caste distinctions.

Q2: Who were involved in questioning the injustices of the caste system?
Ans: Reformers, many from upper castes, and members of reform associations, held secret meetings to challenge caste taboos on food and touch, striving to overcome caste prejudice.

Q3: What impact did Christian missionaries have on societal change?
Ans: In order to give lower caste and tribal youngsters the tools they needed to adjust to a changing environment and seize career possibilities, Christian missionaries founded schools for these populations.

Q4: What caused the 19th century migration of people from countryside to cities?
Ans: People from villages and small towns, especially those from lower castes, were drawn to the emergence of factory labour, jobs in municipalities, and plantation prospects in locations like Assam, Mauritius, Trinidad, and Indonesia.

Q5: How did some marginalized groups find opportunities for employment and escape from oppression?
Ans: The poor and lower-caste people found job opportunities in various fields, such as coolies, diggers, carriers, bricklayers, sweepers, and army jobs like the Mahar Regiment. Such opportunities offered them a chance to break free from oppressive upper-caste control.

Case Study 10

Gradually, by the second half of the nineteenth century, people from within the Non-Brahman castes began organising movements against caste discrimination, and demanded social equality and justice. The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas who worked among the leatherworkers and organised a movement to improve their social status. In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators. Haridas questioned Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system. In what is present-day Kerala, a guru from Ezhava caste, Shri Narayana Guru, proclaimed the ideals of unity for his people. He argued against treating people unequally on the basis of caste differences. According to him, all humankind belonged to the same caste. One of his famous statements was: “oru jati, oru matam, oru daivam manushyanu” (one caste, one religion, one god for humankind). All these sects were founded by leaders who came from Non Brahman castes and worked amongst them. They tried to change those habits and practices which provoked the contempt of dominant castes. They tried to create a sense of self-esteem among the subordinate castes.

Q1: What were the key objectives of the movements started by people from Non-Brahman castes in the second half of the nineteenth century?
Ans: The movements sought social equality and justice, aiming to improve the social status of Non-Brahman castes and challenge caste discrimination.

Q2: Who founded the Satnami movement, and whom did it represent?
Ans: Ghasidas founded the Satnami movement in Central India, working among leatherworkers to uplift their social status and demand equality.

Q3: What did Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect in eastern Bengal aim to challenge?
Ans: Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect questioned Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system and worked to improve the social status of Chandala cultivators.

Q4: What were the ideals proclaimed by Shri Narayana Guru in Kerala?
Ans: Shri Narayana Guru from the Ezhava caste promoted the ideals of unity, advocating against caste-based discrimination and asserting that all humankind belonged to the same caste.

Q5: What were the common characteristics of these sects founded by Non-Brahman leaders?
Ans: All these sects were established by leaders from Non-Brahman castes, and they worked among their own communities to change discriminatory practices, boost self-esteem, and challenge dominant castes’ contemptuous attitudes.

Case Study 11

One of the most vocal amongst the “low-caste” leaders was Jyotirao Phule. Born in 1827, he studied in schools set up by Christian missionaries. On growing up, he developed his own ideas about the injustices of caste society. He set out to attack the Brahmans’ claim that they were superior to others, since they were Aryans. Phule argued that the Aryans were foreigners, who came from outside the subcontinent, and defeated and subjugated the true children of the country – those who had lived here from before the coming of the Aryans. As the Aryans established their dominance, they began looking at the defeated population as inferior, as low-caste people. According to Phule, the “upper” castes had no right to their land and power: in reality, the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes. Phule claimed that before Aryan rule, there existed a golden age when warrior-peasants tilled the land and ruled the Maratha countryside in just and fair ways. He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes) and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination. The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association Phule founded, propagated caste equality. In 1873, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, meaning slavery. Some ten years before this, the American Civil War had been fought, leading to the end of slavery in America. Phule dedicated his book to all those Americans who had fought to free slaves, thus establishing a link between the conditions of the “lower” castes in India and the black slaves in America. As this example shows, Phule extended his criticism of the caste system to argue against all forms of inequality. He was concerned about the plight of “upper”-caste women, the miseries of the labourer, and the humiliation of the “low” castes. This movement for caste reform was continued in the twentieth century by other great dalit leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in western India and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in the south.

Q1: Who was Jyotirao Phule, and what were his key ideas?
Ans: Jyotirao Phule was a prominent “low-caste” leader born in 1827. He challenged Brahmanical claims of superiority, arguing that Aryans were foreigners who oppressed the indigenous people, and proposed unity among Shudras and Ati Shudras to challenge caste discrimination.

Q2: What did Phule’s book “Gulamgiri” signify, and who did he dedicate it to?
Ans: Phule’s book “Gulamgiri” means slavery. He dedicated it to Americans who fought to free slaves, drawing parallels between the conditions of lower-caste people in India and black slaves in America, highlighting the fight against inequality.

Q3: What were Phule’s concerns beyond caste discrimination?
Ans: Phule was concerned about the status of upper-caste women, the struggles of laborers, and the humiliation faced by low-caste individuals, extending his criticism of the caste system to challenge all forms of inequality.

Q4: How did Phule’s movement for caste reform influence the twentieth century?
Ans: Phule’s movement laid the foundation for the caste reform movement in the twentieth century, led by other great dalit leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in western India and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in the south.

Q5: How did Phule challenge the notion of land ownership among upper castes?
Ans: Phule argued that the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes, and questioned the upper castes’ claim to superiority and right to land and power, asserting that it was based on oppressive Aryan rule.

Case Study 12

In the early twentieth century, the non-Brahman movement started. The initiative came from those non-Brahman castes that had acquired access to education, wealth and influence. They argued that Brahmans were heirs of Aryan invaders from the north who had conquered southern lands from the original inhabitants of the region – the indigenous Dravidian races. They also challenged Brahmanical claims to power. E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, as he was called, came from a middle-class family. Interestingly, he had been an ascetic in his early life and had studied Sanskrit scriptures carefully. Later, he became a member of the Congress, only to leave it in disgust when he found that at a feast organised by nationalists, seating arrangements followed caste distinctions – that is, the lower castes were made to sit at a distance from the upper castes. Convinced that untouchables had to fight for their dignity, Periyar founded the Self Respect Movement. He argued that untouchables were the true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture which had been subjugated by Brahmans. He felt that all religious authorities saw social divisions and inequality as God-given. Untouchables had to free themselves, therefore, from all religions in order to achieve social equality. Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures, especially the Codes of Manu, the ancient lawgiver, and the Bhagavad Gita and the Ramayana. He said that these texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and the domination of men over women. These assertions did not go unchallenged. The forceful speeches, writings and movements of lowercaste leaders did lead to rethinking and some selfcriticism among upper-caste nationalist leaders. But orthodox Hindu society also reacted by founding Sanatan Dharma Sabhas and the Bharat Dharma Mahamandal in the north, and associations like the Brahman Sabha in Bengal. The object of these associations was to uphold caste distinctions as a cornerstone of Hinduism, and show how this was sanctified by scriptures. Debates and struggles over caste continued beyond the colonial period and are still going on in our own times

Q1: What part did E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker play in the movement and who was he?
Ans: The Self Respect Movement was started by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, commonly known as Periyar, a middle-class leader. He supported the struggle for untouchable dignity and denounced Hindu texts that upheld social injustice and division.

Q2: How did Periyar view the original Tamil and Dravidian culture in contrast to Brahmanical claims?
Ans: Periyar believed that untouchables were the true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture, which had been suppressed by Brahmanical dominance.

Q3: What reactions did the forceful speeches and movements of lower-caste leaders evoke from upper-caste nationalist leaders and Hindu society?
Ans: Lower-caste leaders’ activism led to rethinking and self-criticism among some upper-caste nationalist leaders. In response, orthodox Hindu society founded associations like Sanatan Dharma Sabhas to uphold caste distinctions as an integral part of Hinduism.

Q4: How long did the debates and struggles over caste continue?
Ans: The debates and struggles over caste persisted beyond the colonial period and continue to be relevant in contemporary times.