Weekly Current Affairs (22nd to 31st August 2024) Part - 2 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

GS3/Environment

Mass Wasting in Sedongpu Gully of Tibet

Why in News?

• A recent study published in the Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering has highlighted a growing concern regarding the rise in mass wasting events occurring in Tibet's Sedongpu Gully since 2017. This phenomenon poses potential risks to India's northeastern states because of the area's geographical connectivity and river systems.

What are the Key Highlights of the Study?

• Increased Frequency of Mass Wasting: The study reports a notable increase in mass wasting incidents in Sedongpu Gully since 2017. Utilizing satellite data from 1969 to 2023, researchers identified 19 significant mass-wasting occurrences, categorized into ice-rock avalanches, ice-moraine avalanches, and glacier debris flows, with 68.4% of these events happening after 2017. Over 700 million cubic meters of debris has been mobilized in the catchment area since 2017, impacting downstream river systems.
• Historical Context: The first documented mass wasting event in the Sedongpu Gully took place between 1974 and 1975, with significant activity noted again starting in 1987.
• Causes of Increased Activity: The uptick in mass wasting events is linked to long-term warming trends and heightened seismic activity. The Sedongpu basin primarily consists of Proterozoic marble, exhibiting land surface temperatures ranging from -5°C to -15°C, rarely exceeding 0°C prior to 2012. Recent data reveals an annual temperature rise of 0.34°C to 0.36°C from 1981 to 2018, surpassing the global average increase of 1.7°C per century since 1970.
• Impact on Tsangpo River: The debris flow has temporarily obstructed the Tsangpo River and its tributaries, raising alarms about potential flash floods downstream, particularly affecting Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Such blockages previously caused catastrophic flooding in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in 2000.

What is Mass Wasting?

Definition: Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rock, soil, and debris driven by gravity. It encompasses various slope movement types, including rock falls, slumps, and debris flows.

Key Triggers for Mass Wasting:

• Heavy rainfall can saturate soil, increasing its weight and susceptibility to movement.
• Rapid snowmelt can introduce significant water into the soil, causing instability.
• Earthquakes can shake the ground, triggering landslides.
• Volcanic eruptions may destabilize slopes through eruptions and related seismic activity.
• Erosion by water bodies can undercut slopes, leading to mass wasting.

Types of Mass Wasting Events:

• Rock Fall or Topple: This involves the sudden falling, bouncing, and rolling of rock debris down a slope, often resulting in significant impact.
• Landslides and Rock Slides: These involve large masses of soil and rock sliding down a slope.
• Debris Flows: A rapid downslope movement of water-saturated rock debris and soil, resembling wet cement, which can be highly destructive.
• Avalanche: A sudden mass movement of rock or ice under the influence of gravity, occurring in mountainous and glacial regions.
• Slope Creep: A gradual, slow movement of soil and rock down a slope, often imperceptible over short periods but significant over time.

How does Mass Wasting in Tibet Affect India and Bangladesh?

• Downstream Effects: The sediment mobilized by mass wasting events can significantly impact the Tsangpo River and its tributaries, which flow into India and merge with the Brahmaputra, already one of the most sediment-rich rivers globally. Additionally, China plans to construct a 60-gigawatt project on the Tsangpo, which would surpass the capacity of the world’s largest hydropower plant, the Three Gorges Project on the Yangtze.
• Flooding and Navigation Issues: The Brahmaputra carries over 800 tonnes of sediment at Pandu in Guwahati, escalating to over a billion tonnes at Bahadurabad in Bangladesh. Increased sedimentation could result in a more intensely braided river system in the Assam plains, leading to bank erosion. Elevation of riverbeds due to sediment accumulation poses flood hazards, while channels may become obstructed with sand and silt during lean seasons, complicating navigation and impacting fishing-related livelihoods.

Way Forward

• The study emphasizes the necessity for continuous monitoring of geological events to manage sedimentation and assess its impact on the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• There is a strong call for additional research to better understand the trends and implications of mass wasting in this critical region.
• Efforts should include promoting reforestation and afforestation to stabilize slopes and reduce erosion.
• Implementing sustainable land use planning is essential to avoid development in high-risk areas.
• Employing erosion control measures, such as terraces, check dams, and gabions, can help prevent soil erosion and mitigate mass wasting risks.
• Regular disaster risk assessments should be conducted to identify vulnerable areas and prioritize mitigation strategies.

Mains Question:

Q. What is the impact of increased mass wasting events in the Sedongpu Gully on river systems in India's northeastern states?

GS2/Governance

Unified Pension Scheme

Why in News?

• The Union Cabinet has approved the Unified Pension Scheme (UPS), which is set to provide government employees with a guaranteed pension following their retirement. The scheme will come into effect on April 1, 2025, for central government employees transitioning from the existing National Pension System (NPS). Additionally, state governments will have the option to adopt this Unified Pension Scheme.

What are the Provisions of the Unified Pension Scheme?

• Assured Pension: Employees will receive an assured pension amounting to 50% of their average basic pay over the last 12 months before retirement, contingent on a minimum qualifying service of 25 years. For shorter service periods, the pension amount will decrease proportionately, with a minimum service requirement of 10 years.
• Assured Minimum Pension: For those retiring after a minimum of 10 years of service, the UPS guarantees a minimum pension of Rs 10,000 per month.
• Assured Family Pension: In the event of a retiree's death, their immediate family will be entitled to 60% of the last drawn pension.
• Inflation Indexation: Dearness relief will be applicable to all three types of pensions, calculated based on the All India Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers.
• Lumpsum Payment at Retirement: In addition to gratuity, employees will receive a lumpsum payment at retirement equivalent to one-tenth of their monthly emoluments (pay + DA) for every completed six months of service. This payment will not reduce the assured pension amount.
• Choice for Employees: Employees have the option to remain under the NPS but can only make this choice once; it cannot be reversed.

What are the Key Differences between UPS, Old Pension Scheme (OPS) and National Pension Scheme (NPS)?

• Pension Calculation Method: Under OPS, the pension was fixed at 50% of the last base salary plus dearness allowance (DA). In contrast, UPS calculates the pension based on the average of the basic salary plus DA drawn in the last year before retirement, which may result in a slightly lower pension if a promotion occurs shortly before retirement.
• Employee Contribution: OPS required no employee contributions, whereas under NPS, employees contribute 10% of their salary, while the government contributes 14%. This creates a shared responsibility for funding the pension.
• Tax Benefits: Central government employees can avail of tax benefits for contributions to the NPS. However, since there were no contributions under OPS, tax benefits were not applicable. The government has not yet clarified the tax implications for UPS contributions.
• Higher Minimum Pension in UPS: The UPS guarantees a higher minimum pension of Rs 10,000 per month after a minimum of 10 years of service, compared to the current minimum of Rs 9,000 under the NPS.
• Lumpsum Payments: OPS allowed for commutation of up to 40% of the pension into a lumpsum payment, reducing the monthly pension amount. In contrast, UPS offers a lumpsum payment calculated as one-tenth of the monthly salary plus DA for every six months of service without affecting the monthly pension.

What is NPS?

• About: NPS is a market-linked contribution scheme introduced by the Central Government to help individuals secure retirement income. It replaced OPS on January 1, 2004, as part of pension reform efforts in India. The Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) governs and administers the scheme under the PFRDA Act, 2013.
• Need for NPS: The previous system was unfunded, lacking a dedicated pension corpus, which resulted in escalating pension liabilities. The Centre's pension liabilities surged from Rs 3,272 crore in 1990-91 to Rs 1,90,886 crore by 2020-21.
• Working of NPS: NPS differs from OPS by not guaranteeing pensions and being funded by employee contributions, supplemented by government contributions. Employees contribute 10% of their basic pay and DA, with the government contributing 14%. Participants can select from various schemes and fund managers for their contributions.
• Opposition to NPS: Government employees have expressed concerns over lower guaranteed returns under NPS compared to OPS, where no employee contributions were required, and higher returns were assured. In response to calls for reinstating OPS, the union government formed a committee in 2023, led by T V Somanathan, whose recommendations led to the introduction of UPS.

What can be the Fiscal Implications of UPS?

• Large Debt-to-GDP Ratio: The implementation of UPS may impose significant fiscal challenges on a government already facing high debt levels, further straining financial resources.
• High Fiscal Burden: A Reserve Bank of India study from September 2023 indicated that if all states were to transition back to OPS, the fiscal burden could increase to 4.5 times that of the NPS, potentially reaching 0.9% of GDP annually by 2060.
• Concern for Union Finances: There are apprehensions regarding the UPS's impact on the overall finances of the Union Government, as it resembles the OPS model.

Conclusion

The UPS aims to balance fiscal costs with employee expectations. It addresses uncertainties associated with pensions while mitigating the fiscal pressures of reverting to OPS. By combining aspects of both OPS (defined benefits) and NPS (contributory), UPS offers a defined return on pension contributions and reduces market risks. With assured returns and protection against inflation, UPS is anticipated to enhance the overall pension fund, alleviating some of the financial risks linked to government debt.

Mains Question:

Q. Explain the key Differences between Unified Pension Scheme (UPS), Old Pension Scheme (OPS) and National Pension Scheme (NPS). How UPS seeks to mitigate the risks associated with NPS?

GS3/Environment

Nuclear Powered Trains

Why in News?

• Indian Railways (IR) is investigating the potential use of nuclear power through captive units as part of its strategy to enhance reliance on non-fossil fuel sources and renewable energy. In addition to nuclear power, Indian Railways is actively commissioning solar power units and wind-based power plants.

What are Nuclear Powered Trains?

• A nuclear-powered train utilizes the heat produced from a nuclear reaction to create high-pressure steam.
• This steam powers two turbines: one turbine drives the train, while the other generates electricity for onboard equipment such as air conditioners and lights.
• The concept of using nuclear power for trains was first seriously explored in the 1950s, when it became an official goal of the USSR's Ministry of Transport.

Functioning of Nuclear-Powered Trains:

• The proposed design features a portable nuclear reactor that heats a fluid to generate steam, which then drives electric turbines to produce power for the train.

Safety Considerations:

• Thorium reactors are considered due to their lower radiation risk compared to other nuclear materials.
• Safety features are integrated into the reactor design to minimize risks and prevent potential misuse.

Potential Benefits:

• Reduced Carbon Emissions: Nuclear power has the potential to significantly lower CO2 emissions compared to fossil fuels, supporting global climate change initiatives.
• Energy Efficiency: Nuclear reactors can deliver a high energy output with minimal fuel, which could decrease operational costs and lessen the environmental impact of long-distance rail transport.
• Low Infrastructure Requirements: These trains could run independently of overhead electric lines, reducing infrastructure expenses and allowing greater operational flexibility.
• Extended Range: Nuclear-powered trains could operate for extended periods without needing frequent refueling, benefiting both freight and passenger services across vast rail networks.
• High Efficiency: The continuous power supply from nuclear reactors could optimize rail transport performance, significantly enhancing operational efficiency.

Challenges of Nuclear-Powered Trains:

• Radiation Risks: The management of nuclear materials and the prevention of radiation leaks present major challenges. Effective shielding and safety protocols are crucial to protect passengers and crew.
• High Costs: The initial investment required to develop and implement nuclear-powered trains is substantial, including costs related to creating small, safe reactors and integrating them into train systems.
• Technical Complexity: The design and maintenance of nuclear reactors for moving trains pose significant engineering challenges.

How Indian Railways Plans to Reduce its Reliance on Fossil Fuel Sources?

• Nuclear Power Exploration: Indian Railways intends to engage with the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) to explore the feasibility of utilizing nuclear power through its own captive units, including small reactors and power-generating units.
• Net Zero Carbon Emission Target: The goal is to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2030, which will require an estimated 30,000 MW of renewable energy capacity by 2029-30.
• Current Renewable Energy Efforts: Partnerships are being sought with organizations like the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), NTPC, and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) to advance renewable energy initiatives.
• Renewable Energy Achievements: As of 2023, Indian Railways has commissioned approximately 147 MW of solar power and 103 MW of wind power, and has electrified over 63,500 kilometers of its broad-gauge network.
• Additionally, 2,637 stations and service buildings have been equipped with solar rooftop plants, generating a total capacity of 177 MW.

Why Indian Railways Need Alternative Sources of Energy?

• High Energy Consumption: Indian Railways consumes over 20 billion kWh of electricity annually, accounting for about 2% of the country's total energy consumption, underscoring the need for more sustainable energy solutions.
• Increasing Power Demand: Projections indicate that power needs will surge from 4,000 MW in 2012 to approximately 15,000 MW by 2032 due to ongoing electrification, highlighting the necessity for diverse energy sources.
• Electrification Targets: Indian Railways aims to electrify 100% of its broad-gauge network, which will significantly increase electricity demand, necessitating sustainable alternative energy sources.
• Environmental Impact: The reliance on diesel and electricity contributes to high CO2 emissions. Indian Railways has set a target for a 33% reduction in emissions intensity from 2005 levels as part of its low-carbon strategy.
• Diminishing Revenue Surplus: Revenue earnings have struggled to keep pace with expenditure, with revenue expenditure projected to grow at an annualized rate of 7.2% compared to 6.3% for revenue receipts, compelling Indian Railways to generate its own energy to curtail costs.
• Cost Optimisation: As the largest electricity consumer, Indian Railways spends around Rs 20,000 crore each year. The organization seeks to cut costs through renewable energy procurement and more economical power generation models.

Conclusion

The necessity for alternative energy sources for Indian Railways stems from several critical factors, including high energy consumption and costs, growing power demand due to electrification, environmental concerns, and the need for energy security and cost control. While nuclear propulsion offers potential benefits for reducing carbon emissions and enhancing operational efficiency, significant challenges regarding safety, costs, and public acceptance must be addressed. Continued research and technological advancements may position nuclear energy as a viable option for the future of rail transport.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the need for alternative sources of energy for Indian Railways? How nuclear energy can help railways become a net zero carbon emitter by 2030?

GS2/International Relations

India-US Defence Pact to Deepen Cooperation

Why in news?

• Recently, India and the US have signed two significant agreements: a non-binding Security of Supply Arrangement (SOSA) and a Memorandum of Agreement regarding the Assignment of Liaison Officers. These initiatives are part of the broader 2023 US-India Roadmap for Defence Industrial Cooperation, aiming to enhance priority co-production projects between the two nations.

What are the Key Defence Agreements Signed Between India and the US?

• Security of Supplies Arrangement (SOSA): This agreement allows both countries to prioritize each other's goods and services crucial for national defense, thereby ensuring supply chain resilience during emergencies. India becomes the 18th SOSA partner of the US after several other nations. Although not legally binding, it operates on the principle of mutual goodwill, with US defense contractors able to request expedited deliveries from India and vice versa.
• MoU on Liaison Officers: This Memorandum of Understanding aims to improve information-sharing between India and the US by establishing a system for Liaison Officers, starting with the deployment of an Indian officer to the US Special Operations Command in Florida. This initiative builds on prior agreements designed to strengthen bilateral defense ties.
• Reciprocal Defence Procurement (RDP) Agreement: India and the US are in discussions about an RDP Agreement, which would enhance standardization and interoperability of defense equipment between the US and its partners. This agreement aims to facilitate US companies in bypassing certain procurement restrictions in India, promoting collaboration with local firms.

SOSA Vs. RDP:

• SOSA: Focuses on maintaining defense supply chains during crises.
• RDP: Establishes a legally binding framework prioritizing defense orders and fostering joint production and technological collaboration.

What are the Developments in India-US Defence Cooperation?

• GSOMIA: The 2002 General Security of Military Information Agreement laid the groundwork for sharing sensitive military information.
• LEMOA: The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement established reciprocal logistical support between the two militaries in 2016.
• COMCASA and BECA: The Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement improved secure military communications, and the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement enabled geospatial data sharing critical for military operations.
• 2+2 Dialogue: This ministerial dialogue, supported by joint exercises, enhances interoperability and builds trust between the two nations.
• Strategic Trade Authorization Tier-1 Status: India was granted this status in 2018, allowing access to advanced technologies, marking a significant growth in defense ties.
• DTTI: The Defence Trade and Technology Initiative, started in 2012, aims to streamline defense trade and promote co-production, shifting from a buyer-seller to a partnership model.
• Military Procurement: India has procured various military assets from the US, including MH-60R Seahawk helicopters and M777 howitzers, while ongoing negotiations focus on manufacturing advanced jet engines in India.
• INDUS-X: Launched in June 2023, this initiative fosters defense innovation and industrial collaboration, highlighting priority areas such as Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance.
• I2U2 Grouping: This grouping includes India, Israel, the US, and the UAE, dedicated to joint investments in multiple sectors, including energy and food security.

How India and US Relations Have Evolved Over the Time?

• Cold War Period: During the Cold War, India pursued a non-aligned stance while Pakistan aligned with the US. Relations improved in the 1990s after India's economic liberalization.
• Nuclear Agreement: The 2008 Civil Nuclear Agreement recognized India as a responsible nuclear power, enhancing cooperation in defense and technology sectors.
• Economic Synergy: Bilateral trade reached USD 118.28 billion in 2023-24, making the US India's largest trading partner, with cooperation expanding into clean energy and healthcare.
• Technology Cooperation: Collaboration in fields like AI and 5G has become a cornerstone of bilateral ties, highlighted by initiatives like the US-India AI Initiative.
• Geopolitical Alignment: The rise of China has brought India and the US closer, emphasizing a free and open Indo-Pacific strategy.

What are the Challenges to India-US Relations?

• Human Rights and Democratic Values: Concerns over India's treatment of minorities, especially regarding the Citizenship Amendment Act and the revocation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status, have affected relations.
• Strategic Competition with China: While both nations view China as a challenge, their strategies occasionally diverge, particularly regarding India's economic ties with China.
• Trade and Economic Disputes: Issues related to trade disputes and market access complicate efforts to reach comprehensive trade agreements.
• Balancing Relations: India's historical non-alignment influences its relations with both the US and Russia, creating tensions in expectations and responses.

Way Forward

• Address Diplomatic Concerns: Resolve tensions through discussions on democracy and strategic cooperation.
• Enhance Counterterrorism Cooperation: Strengthen efforts to manage threats from groups like the Taliban and pressure Pakistan to curb terrorism.
• Focus on Emerging Technologies and AI: Increase collaboration on data regulation and privacy for national security.
• Advance Multilateral Coordination: Prioritize coordination in international forums to address strategic issues.
• Boost Economic Engagement: Enhance trade and technology cooperation to drive economic growth.

Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the evolution of India-US relations. How do India-US defence relations affect India's ties with other major powers?

GS2/Governance

High Attrition Rates in Regional Rural Banks

Why in News?

• Recently, the Union Finance Minister highlighted the significant issue of high attrition rates in Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and urged these institutions to implement more employee-friendly policies. This call for reform emphasizes the need to enhance employee satisfaction, improve customer service, and ultimately boost the overall performance of RRBs.

Reasons for High Attrition Rates in RRBs:

• Lack of Employee Benefits: Employees often leave RRBs for better opportunities in Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) that offer superior facilities while maintaining similar pay scales. According to NABARD, the employee count in 43 RRBs dropped from 95,833 in FY 2022 to 91,664 in FY 2023, despite a slight increase in branches.
• Challenging Work Environment: Employees relocating from other states may struggle to adapt to rural living conditions, prompting them to seek employment elsewhere.
• Slower Career Growth: RRBs typically provide slower promotion rates and fewer incentives compared to SCBs, leading to employee dissatisfaction.

Strategies to Improve Employee Retention:

• Prioritising Local Postings: Assigning employees to their home regions can help them maintain a better work-life balance, reducing their inclination to leave for other jobs.
• Enhancing Employee Benefits: RRBs should offer competitive benefits similar to SCBs, such as improved housing, healthcare, and retirement plans.
• Accelerating Career Growth: Introducing quicker promotion pathways and more frequent career progression opportunities can motivate employees to stay and develop within the organization.
• Supportive Work Environment: Creating a more employee-friendly workplace by providing flexible working conditions and regular training can enhance job satisfaction. Offering support for employees in rural areas, such as better housing and community activities, can help them adapt and succeed.
• Expanding Digital Capabilities: Implementing digital banking services, like mobile banking, can enhance RRB performance and attract technology-oriented employees who value innovation.

Overview of Regional Rural Banks:

• About: Established following the Narasimham Committee's 1975 recommendations, RRBs were formed under the RRB Act of 1976 to boost the economy by providing credit and services to small farmers, agricultural laborers, artisans, and small entrepreneurs, thereby supporting rural and semi-urban development.
• Structure: RRBs operate within areas designated by the Government, covering one or more districts in a state, merging cooperative local engagement with commercial banking professionalism. As of March 2023, there are 43 RRBs sponsored by 12 scheduled commercial banks across 26 states and 3 Union Territories, with Prathama Bank being the first established RRB.
• Ownership: RRBs are jointly owned by the Central and State governments along with the sponsoring bank, in a ratio of 50:15:35. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) oversees the banking system, including the supervision of RRBs under the Banking Regulation Act of 1949.

Financial Performance:

• RRBs have exhibited significant growth, with total business surpassing Rs 10 lakh crore in FY23, marking a 10.1% year-on-year increase.
• As of March 2023, Gross Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) were at 7.28%, the lowest in seven years, while Net NPAs were approximately 3.2%.
• RRBs achieved a record consolidated net profit of Rs 4,974 crore in FY22-23, with a net profit of Rs 5,236 crore reported by the third quarter of FY23-24.

Challenges Faced by RRBs:

• Asset Quality Maintenance: Ensuring high asset quality is crucial as RRBs expand credit and grow their portfolios in rural and semi-urban areas.
• Limited Digital Infrastructure: Many RRBs struggle with the maintenance and upgrade of digital banking services, especially in regions with inadequate connectivity.
• Corporate Governance Issues: RRBs need to enhance their internal processes and compliance to maintain efficiency and credibility.
• Pressure to Increase Credit Penetration: RRBs face pressure to boost their share of agricultural credit disbursement, which necessitates a careful balance of resources and risks.
• Increased Competition: The rise of private sector banks has intensified competition, as these banks offer better technology and services, posing challenges for RRBs to attract and retain customers.
• Non-Performing Assets: The burden of NPAs has impacted the financial health of RRBs, compelling them to focus on reducing these loans rather than expanding services.

Opportunities for Improving RRB Performance:

• Review Operational Models: Evaluate the potential benefits of merging RRBs with their sponsor banks to enhance service efficiency.
• Map RRBs with MSME Clusters: Align RRB operations with Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) to enhance credit delivery and support local businesses.
• Expand Financial Inclusion Efforts: Increase outreach for government schemes like Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana and improve uptake in underdeveloped regions.
• Leverage CASA Ratio for Credit Growth: Utilize a healthy Current Account Savings Account (CASA) ratio to extend more credit to underserved sectors.
• Enhance Customer Engagement: Strengthen customer relations through local connections and personalized services to improve satisfaction.
• Collaboration with Sponsor Banks: Work closely with sponsor banks to gain technical assistance and share best practices for growth.
• Focus on Asset Quality: Implement effective risk management practices to maintain and improve asset quality.

Mains Question:

Q. Examine the challenges faced by Regional Rural Banks in promoting financial inclusion in rural India. What steps can be taken to enhance their effectiveness?

GS3/Environment

Transboundary Rivers of India

• Bangladesh has recently experienced severe flooding, raising concerns that water from the Dumbur dam in Tripura, India, might be the cause. However, the Indian government has clarified that the flooding is primarily due to heavy rainfall in the larger catchment areas of the Gumti River, which flows through both India and Bangladesh, rather than the release of water from the dam.

What are the Transboundary Rivers of India with Neighboring Countries?

• India-Bangladesh: India and Bangladesh share 54 rivers, with many flowing into the Bay of Bengal via Bangladesh.

Major Rivers:

• The Ganges (Padma in Bangladesh): Flows from India into Bangladesh, traversing the Gangetic plain of North India. Major left-bank tributaries include the Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi; right-bank tributaries include the Yamuna, Son, and Punpun.
• Ghaghara: Originates in the Tibetan Plateau and joins the Ganges near Patna, noted for its high discharge, especially during monsoons.
• Son River: Flows through the Kaimur Range, covering 487 miles before joining the Ganges above Patna, Bihar.
• Teesta: Originates in the Himalayas, flowing through Sikkim and West Bengal before merging with the Brahmaputra in Assam and the Jamuna in Bangladesh. Bangladesh seeks a fair allocation of its waters.
• Feni: Flows 135 km south of Agartala, the capital of Tripura, with a catchment area of 1,147 square km—535 square km in India and the rest in Bangladesh. The Maitri Setu bridge links India and Bangladesh over the Feni River.
• Kushiyara River: A distributary of the Barak River, originating at the Amlshid bifurcation point in Assam.
• Brahmaputra River: Originates from the Chemayungdung glacier in Tibet, flows through India and Bangladesh, forming a natural border, and merges with the Ganges to form the Padma River.
• Meghna: Formed by the division of the Barak River into Surma and Kushiyara, it rejoins in Bangladesh to become the Meghna.
• Jamuna: A distributary of the Brahmaputra, it flows into the Padma River in Bangladesh.

• India-China: Transboundary rivers from China to India fall into two main groups.
• Brahmaputra River System: Includes the Siang (main stream) and its tributaries, known as Yaluzangbu or Tsangpo in China.
• Indus River System: Comprises rivers originating in Tibet, with two MoUs signed between India and China for hydrological information sharing.

• India-Pakistan: The Indus River, a major transboundary river, originates in Western Tibet and flows through Kashmir into Pakistan, emptying into the Arabian Sea.
• Sutlej: A major tributary of the Indus, it flows from Rakas Lake in Pakistan through Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
• Chenab: Originates from the Chandra and Bhaga streams, flows through Jammu and Kashmir into Pakistan.
• Jhelum: Originates from Verinag Spring in Kashmir, flows through Jammu and Kashmir before entering Pakistan.
• Beas: Originates at Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass, flowing through Kullu valley to join the Sutlej.
• Ravi: Flows from the Bara Bangal region in Himachal Pradesh into Punjab.
• 1960 Indus Waters Treaty: Allocated control of the Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers to India, and the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum to Pakistan.

• India-Nepal: Major rivers from Nepal flowing into India include the Rapti, Narayani, and Kali, primarily originating in the Himalayas.
• Kosi: A transboundary river flowing through China, Nepal, and India, known for its frequent course changes and flooding, earning it the nickname "sorrow of Bihar."
• Gandak: Also known as Gandaki or Narayani River, originating in Tibet, flows through northern India and Nepal before merging with the Ganges.
• Sharda/Kali/Mahakali River: Originates at Kalapani in Uttarakhand, flowing along the western border of Nepal and India, merging with the Ghaghra River.
• Pancheshwar Dam: A proposed joint irrigation and hydroelectric power project for the Sharda River.
• Sugauli Treaty 1816: India and Nepal have differing interpretations regarding the boundary along the Maha Kali River.

Mains Question:

Q. What are the major transboundary rivers of India? Examine the challenges and opportunities in managing transboundary rivers in India.