Plato (427 BC - 347 BC) | Political Science for CUET(PG) - CUET PG PDF Download

Life Sketch

Plato was born in 427 B.C. into a respectable Athenian family during a time of significant historical events. His life coincided with the turbulent period of the Peloponnesian War, which saw the decline of Athens following the death of the prominent general Pericles. Plato, a disciple of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, is regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece. He employed dialogues and lectures as methods to convey his philosophical ideas. Renowned as one of the most skilled logicians and dialecticians of the West, Plato sought to challenge prevailing false beliefs by refuting the views of his opponents, ultimately shaping reality through his own interpretations.

Works of Plato
Plato’s philosophy is predominantly captured in three major works: The Republic (386 B.C.), The Statesman (360 B.C.), and The Laws (347 B.C.).

Influences on Plato's Thought

• Plato’s ideas were heavily influenced by the intellectual climate of his time.
• He drew inspiration from the philosophies of his predecessors, such as Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Socrates.
• Heraclitus’s belief in the constant flux of life particularly shaped Plato's views on the nature of the world.
• Plato believed that knowledge is a virtue that can be attained solely through intellect.
• He adopted three fundamental doctrines from Socrates:
  • Virtue is knowledge
  • The theory of reality
  • The theory of knowledge

The Republic

• Plato's Republic, also known as Concerning Justice, is considered his magnum opus.
• It represents the maturity of his thought.
• Written when Plato was around 40 years old, it comprises ten books.
• The work delves into both political and moral principles.
• It covers a wide array of topics, including metaphysics, education, sociology, and more.
• Plato begins with the question of what it means to be a good man.
• He explores how one can achieve goodness.
• His exploration of ethics leads into discussions on politics, sociology, metaphysics, and education.
• This showcases the interconnectedness of these subjects in Plato’s time.
• During his era, there were no rigid distinctions between disciplines.

Key Ideas of Plato

To understand Plato's philosophy fully, one must explore his views on the following:
(A) Dialogues and the Theory of Forms
(B) The Ideal State
(C) The Rule of the Philosopher King
(D) Justice
(E) Education
(F) Communism of Wives and Property

Plato's Dialogues

Plato’s philosophy evolved through his dialogues, which are treatises covering topics like ethics and metaphysics. While these dialogues are not systematically structured, they offer insights into his thinking. Plato’s dialogues can be grouped into three categories:

• Early works (e.g., Apology, Crito, Meno, Protagoras, Gorgias), written before he was 34, primarily serve to refute opponents without asserting his own views.
• Middle works (e.g., The Republic, Phaedrus, Phaedo), written between the ages of 34 and 60, present positive doctrines supported by myths.
• Later works (e.g., Politicus, Philebus, Critias, Laws) focus on political philosophy and were composed after Plato turned 60.

Theory of Forms: Plato is credited with introducing the dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, and he is also seen as the founder of Western political philosophy. His most famous contribution is the Theory of Forms (or Ideas), which attempts to solve the problem of universals, a concept known as Platonism.

Metaphysics

• In his dialogues, Plato (often through Socrates and others) addresses various aspects of metaphysics, including religion, science, human nature, love, and sexuality. He contrasts perception with reality, nature with custom, and body with soul. According to philosopher Francis Cornford, two core elements of Platonism are the Theory of Forms and the doctrine of the immortality of the soul.

Theory of Forms

Plato’s Theory of Forms argues that the material world is not the true reality but rather a mere reflection of it.

The theory suggests the existence of two worlds:

• The apparent world, perceived by the senses, which is in constant flux
• The unseen, unchanging world of Forms, which can be grasped through reason

Examples of Forms include abstract concepts like justice, truth, and beauty. Plato famously used the example of geometric truths, such as the Pythagorean theorem, to illustrate the existence of Forms.

Forms as Universals

• The Forms serve as universals, providing a solution to the philosophical problem of how one predicate (e.g., "red") can apply to many objects.
• Plato argued that individual objects participate in the universal Form.
• His philosophy is therefore often referred to as Platonic realism.
• Aristotle noted that Plato's most compelling argument for the Forms was the "one over many" argument.

The Soul

• In ancient Greek thought, the soul was believed to be the essence of life. Plato advocated for the immortality of the soul and many of his dialogues conclude with imaginative descriptions of the afterlife.

Epistemology 

• Plato also explored the nature of knowledge. He distinguished between knowledge (episteme) and opinion (doxa) and argued that true knowledge comes from divine insight, not empirical experience. The Forms are essential to knowledge and certainty, and they can only be comprehended through reason.

Ethics

• Plato’s ethics were virtue-based and eudaemonistic, focusing on achieving happiness or fulfillment through virtue. He viewed "The Good" as the highest Form, even transcending existence itself.

Politics

• Plato’s dialogues also deal extensively with politics. However, because the opinions are presented by different characters in various dialogues, they cannot be assumed to represent Plato’s personal views directly.

Plato’s Concept of the Ideal State 

Plato envisioned the state as an organic entity, where there is no conflict between the goals of the state and those of the individual. He believed that a just ruler always prioritizes the welfare of the community, disregarding personal interests. In Plato's ideal state, the ruler should be a philosopher-king, one who possesses knowledge of both goodness and reality.

The Three Classes in Plato's Ideal State: 

Plato's ideal state consists of three distinct classes, each with its own defined role:

• The economic class, responsible for producing wealth, is made up of individuals with a nature like iron.
• The military class, tasked with defending the state, consists of individuals with a nature like silver.
• The ruling class, charged with governance, comprises individuals with a nature like gold.

Although all classes are essential within their respective domains, Plato regarded the ruling class as the most important. The stability and success of the state depended on the just governance provided by this class. Plato sought to cultivate a ruling class devoid of selfish desires through rigorous education and the communal ownership of property and wives.

Plato’s Concept of the Philosopher-King

Plato's concept of the philosopher-king arises from his view of justice. He divided the human soul into three components:

• Reason,
• Spirit, and
• Appetite.

Plato emphasized the primacy of reason, both in the soul and in the structure of the state. He believed that virtue and knowledge are inseparable, arguing that the state’s chaos was due to the ignorant ruling over the wise. To rectify this, Plato insisted that only the wise, after thorough training, should rule. His famous statement captures this belief: "Until philosophers are kings, or kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils."

Plato was highly critical of Athens’ democratic practice of selecting rulers by lottery, famously remarking that "to become a ruler, a simple lottery will do." He rejected this method, advocating instead that only the competent and educated should govern.

Features of Plato's Philosopher-King

• The philosopher-king should have unlimited power.
• He must be a lover of wisdom and a passionate seeker of truth.
• The philosopher-king must be committed to selfless service and embody rationality.
• He must undergo comprehensive and rigorous training throughout his life.
• Plato saw the philosopher-king as the embodiment of virtue and knowledge.

Plato distrusted democracy, criticizing it as a "government of the ignorant." Instead, he advocated for the philosopher-king to have absolute power, as he believed that a lover of wisdom could better determine what benefits the community.

While Plato granted philosopher-kings significant authority, he imposed limitations. These rulers were expected to respect fundamental principles, such as regulating wealth and ensuring education and unity within the state. Therefore, the Platonic state is an aristocracy of virtue and intellect.

Plato's Concept of Justice

Plato subtitled his book The Republic as "Concerning Justice," reflecting the centrality of justice to his philosophy. The main focus of The Republic is to discover the true nature of justice. To do so, Plato critiqued and rejected several prevailing theories of justice before developing his own doctrine.

Rejection of Traditional Theories of Justice

1. Traditional Theory of Justice (Cephalus & Polemarchus): Cephalus and Polemarchus defined justice as telling the truth and fulfilling obligations. Plato rejected this notion, arguing that true justice means doing good to all and harm to none.

2. Radical Theory of Justice (Thrasymachus): Thrasymachus, a Sophist, viewed justice as the interest of the stronger and promoted the idea that "might makes right." Plato rejected this, arguing that justice benefits both the ruler and the ruled. He emphasized that justice is healthier than injustice, as it leads to strength, prudence, and happiness.

3. Pragmatic Theory (Glaucon): Glaucon viewed justice as a social construct, created out of fear and necessity by the weaker members of society. Plato disagreed, asserting that justice is inherent and not an artificial imposition.

Plato believed that justice exists in both individuals and society. He likened the state to the human mind, with three components: reason, spirit, and appetite, represented by the rulers, soldiers, and producers, respectively. Justice, according to Plato, is the bond that holds society together in a harmonious union. Each individual must find their life’s work based on their natural abilities and training, and justice ensures that everyone fulfills their role.

Plato’s concept of justice rests on three key principles:

1. Functional specialization: Everyone is assigned a specific role based on their abilities.
2. Non-interference: Each class should focus on its duties and not meddle in the affairs of others.
3. Harmony: There should be harmony between the three classes, represented by wisdom (rulers), courage (soldiers), and temperance (producers).

For Plato, if everyone performs their designated role, an ideal society will emerge, where justice prevails, and individuals act in harmony with both their own nature and the greater good of the state.

Plato's Theory of Education

Plato viewed education as a fundamental means to promote unity and harmony within society. His educational philosophy is closely tied to his theory of justice. Barker described it as an effort "to cure a mental malady by mental medicine." Plato believed that many social problems could be addressed through proper education, which he saw as a form of spiritual therapy. He placed great importance on education in his ideal state, dedicating much of the second book of The Republic to this topic. Rousseau even praised The Republic as "the finest treatise on education ever written." Plato believed that virtue was tied to knowledge, and that it was the state's responsibility to impart this knowledge.

Methods of Plato’s Education

During Plato's time, there were two prevailing systems of education:

1. Athenian System: Education was privately managed, with parents determining how their children would be educated.
2. Spartan System: Education was state-controlled. Children were separated from their parents at a young age and placed under the care of prefects. The state provided them with an education aligned with societal needs.

Plato attempted to combine these two systems while making adjustments, especially in higher education.

Features of Platonic Education

1. State-controlled Education: Plato insisted that education should not be left in private hands but controlled by the state to ensure all citizens were properly educated.
2. Compulsory Education: He opposed leaving education to the discretion of parents, as uneducated children could become a threat to the state. Plato believed education should be mandatory for all citizens to develop their mental faculties and contribute positively to the state.
3. Education for Both Men and Women: Plato did not differentiate between the intellectual capacities of boys and girls, advocating for equal education for both genders. He also believed that women should have the opportunity to hold public office.
4. Education for All Classes: Although Plato did not elaborate extensively, he implied that artisans and peasants should also receive education, emphasizing that individuals of lower social status could rise through education if they exhibited the necessary attributes.
5. Censorship of Literary and Artistic Works: Plato advocated strict control over literature and art to protect the youth from negative moral influences. He believed only appropriate materials should be available, with the state having the final say on their content.
6. Moral and Physical Education: Plato emphasized the development of both the mind and the body, asserting that a healthy mind could only reside in a healthy body.

Ultimately, Plato's educational system aimed to produce philosopher-kings—wise rulers who had undergone rigorous education to govern in the best interests of the people.

Curriculum of Education

Plato's educational curriculum was divided into two stages:

• Elementary Education: Spanning from birth to age 20, it consisted of three sub-stages:
  1. From birth to six years: Focused on religion and religious institutions.
  2. From six to 18 years: Emphasized music for the soul and gymnastics for the body.
  3. From 18 to 20 years: Both men and women received compulsory military training.
• Higher Education: Spanning from 20 to 35 years, higher education was divided into two sub-stages:
  1. From 20 to 30 years: Students studied subjects such as mathematics, astronomy, logic, and other sciences.
  2. From 30 to 35 years: Focused on dialectics, the method Plato believed was key to understanding the highest truths.

At the age of 35, the philosopher-king would assume leadership and serve until the age of 50, at which point he would retire to study and contemplate God.

Communism of Wives and Property

Plato's ideas of communism of wives and property were connected to his theory of justice. Communal property was not unfamiliar to the Greeks, as both Athens and Sparta had elements of state-controlled private property. Plato extended these ideas, believing that the guardian class should be free from material concerns to focus on public service.

Communism of Property

• Plato believed that private property hindered the unity of the state.
• He feared that ownership of property would foster selfishness.
• Property ownership could distract philosopher-rulers from their duties.
• Thus, he proposed that the guardian class should renounce private property.
• This renunciation was for the greater good.

Communism of Wives

• Plato's idea of communism of wives was an extension of his property theory.
• He believed that the family could be a rival to loyalty to the state.
• Family ties could divert attention from public service.
• He proposed that the guardian class should have no permanent marriages.
• The state should regulate temporary unions to produce children.
• Children would be raised by the state, unaware of their biological parents.

The Laws

In his later work, The Laws, Plato's political thought matured, reflecting more practical considerations compared to The Republic. While he still envisioned an ideal state, he proposed ideas that left a lasting impact on later generations, displaying greater sobriety and maturity in his judgments.

Principles of Communism of Wives

1. Limited to the Guardian Class: Like his communism of property, Plato's scheme for communism of wives applied only to the guardian class.
2. Family Life as a Rival to State Loyalty: Plato viewed family life as a threat to state loyalty, believing that private family ties fostered selfishness.
3. No Permanent Marriages: Guardians would not have permanent marriages, and all women and men would be shared communally.
4. Common Barracks: Guardians would live together in communal barracks.
5. State-regulated Unions: The state would regulate temporary unions between the best men and women to produce children.
6. State-controlled Childrearing: Children would be raised by the state, unaware of their biological parents, and provided with education at the state's expense.

Plato as a Fascist

Plato is sometimes described as the father of modern Fascism. He subordinated the individual to the state and advocated for the rule of a single philosopher-king with unlimited authority. Plato also rejected democracy, advocating for an aristocracy of intellect as the best form of government. His emphasis on duty over rights, his belief in fundamental inequalities among humans, and his authoritarian views on leadership align with elements of modern fascism. However, his vision remained focused on creating an ideal state guided by wisdom and justice.