Aristotle (384 BC to 322 BC) | Political Science for CUET(PG) - CUET PG PDF Download

Life Sketches 

Aristotle: The Father of Political Science 

• Aristotle, born in  384 B.C. at Stagira on the Aegean Sea, is regarded as the father of Political Science. He was a disciple of Plato, but not an Athenian by birth. His father was a physician to the King of Macedon, which gave Aristotle a unique perspective on the workings of the royal court and the state.
• Aristotle's early exposure to the royal court influenced his understanding of politics and governance.
• He established a systematic and scientific approach to the study of political science.

The Lyceum and Later Life 

• Aristotle founded a school called the  Lyceum, where he shared his ideas and philosophies. The school received support from  Alexander the Great.
• After Alexander's death, when the anti-Macedonian party rose to power, Aristotle fled to Chalcis, where he died in the same year.

Aristotle's Works 

• Although Aristotle wrote extensively on various subjects such as metaphysics, moral science, poetry, biology, and politics, his political contributions are of particular interest to us.
• His most significant work on political philosophy is "Politics." 

The Politics of Aristotle 

Aristotle's Politics is a foundational text in political science, offering insights into various forms of government, citizenship, and the ideal state. It is organized into eight books, each addressing different aspects of political theory.

Overview of the Eight Books: 

• Book I: Introduces the treatise and discusses slavery.
• Book II: Examines Plato's ideal state.
• Book III: Explores citizenship and different forms of constitution, including monarchy.
• Book IV: Analyzes various forms of government.
• Books V and VI: Focus on oligarchy and democracy.
• Book VII: Discusses the constitution of an ideal state.
• Book VIII: Develops ideas from Book VII.

The first three books lay the groundwork for the subsequent discussions, while the later books delve into the nature of constitutions and the concept of an ideal state.

Influences on Aristotle's Thought: 

•  Father's Influence: Aristotle was influenced by his father's biological perspective and scientific approach.
•  Athenian Anarchy: The existing chaos in Athens played a significant role in shaping Aristotle's thoughts.
•  Greek Philosophy: Aristotle's ideas were also shaped by his views on the preeminence of Greek philosophy.

Ideas of Aristotle

The following ideas of Aristotle can be discussed in great detail:
(A) Views on Ideal State
(B) Classification of Constitutions or States
(C) Concept of Slavery
(D) Views on Citizenship
(E) Concept of Property
(F) Concept of Revolutions
(G) Views on Justice 

Views on Ideal State 

Aristotle, like Plato, rejected the Sophist view that the political society is a product of convention. He viewed the state as a natural institution with moral authority, established to fulfill the needs and desires of the people. For Aristotle, the state aims at the excellence of man, and there is no conflict between the individual and the state. He believed that individuals can only achieve self-sufficiency within the state. Aristotle supported the natural character of the state with theological arguments, asserting that the true nature of man is realized only in the state, which is a rational institution because man is a rational being.

Attributes of the State 

• Aristotle developed the organic principles of the state.
• He argued that a man finds his true significance in life only through his relationship with the state.
• He emphasized that "the state is a natural community: an organism with all the attributes of a living being."
• Just as an organ cannot be separated from the organism, an individual cannot be separated from the state.
• The individual and other associations derive all their importance from the state; without it, they would stagnate and die.
• No person can achieve his full potential outside the state.
• Aristotle considers the state as the supreme association.
• He views the state as an association of men aimed at achieving the best moral life.

Functions of State 

• Aristotle envisioned the state as responsible for creating necessary conditions for the mental, moral, and physical growth of its citizens.
• He believed that the state’s functions should extend beyond merely protecting the rights of its members or preserving their life and property.
• A significant role of the state, according to Aristotle, is to encourage the good among its citizens.
• The state should provide proper education to its members to enable them to perform their functions effectively.

Representation of Ideal State 

• Aristotle’s political thought blends Political Ideals and Political Actualities.
• In his work Politics, books II, III, and VII outline his political ideals, while books IV, V, and VI address political realities.
• Aristotle’s concept of the Ideal State draws from Plato but is more practical and realistic.
• He prefers Aristocracy as the best government if there are a few virtuous individuals.
• If many people are capable of ruling, he advocates for Polity as the best government.
• Aristotle emphasizes considering the special nature of the people when prescribing an ideal state.
• He has a natural preference for Monarchy as the Ideal State, believing that exceptional virtue is more likely to be found in one person than in a large group.
• However, he acknowledges the difficulty of achieving this ideal and prefers a government of high and enlightened virtue where all citizens rule and are ruled in turn.

Basic Features of Ideal State 

• Small city-state 
• Occupancy of law 
• Moral improvement amongst the citizens
• Role of Education 
• Right to private property 
• Size of the territory 
• Division of labour 
• Against large population 
• Self-sufficient
• Dominated by the Middle Class 
• Sufficient admittance to sea 

Aristotle's ideas about his ideal state are dispersed across books III, VII, and VIII of his works and are not organized systematically in a single section.

1. Small City-State: Aristotle's ideal state is a small city-state comprising a close-knit and friendly community where social life intertwines with family, religion, and personal interactions.

2. Rule of Law: In this state, law plays a crucial role in protecting citizens' rights. Aristotle advocates for the impersonal rule of law rather than the despotic rule of even the most virtuous individuals. The law, representing the wisdom of the community over time, is seen as an intrinsic part of good governance, not merely a concession to human weakness.

3. Moral Improvement: Aristotle's ideal state is a moral institution focused on fostering moral progress among its citizens.

4. Role of Education: Education is vital in Aristotle's ideal state, aimed at cultivating virtuous citizens. He emphasizes compulsory, state-regulated education to instill good habits and moral character in the population.

5. Right to Private Property: Private property is recognized in Aristotle's ideal state, as he considers it a natural institution that should be preserved. He advocates for an equitable distribution of land among citizens.

6. Division of Labor: Aristotle's ideal state features a division of labor, assigning agriculture to slaves, commerce and trade to resident aliens, and political roles to citizens.

7. Population Size: The population of Aristotle's ideal state should neither be too small nor too large. While he does not specify exact numbers, he insists that the population should be manageable, arguing that ideal conditions cannot be achieved with an excessively large population. Citizens should ideally know one another.

8. Territory Size: The territory of the ideal state should be sufficient to allow its people to live free and leisurely lives. It must have adequate economic resources to meet the needs of the population.

9. Self-Sufficiency: The ideal state should be self-sufficient, avoiding aggressive enterprises against foreign nations. It should focus on the comprehensive development of its citizens—mentally, morally, and economically.

10. Dominance of the Middle Class: Aristotle believes that the middle class is essential for state stability, as it embodies both the ability to govern and to be governed.

11. Access to the Sea: The ideal state should have access to the sea for necessary imports, but it should not be so close that defense becomes difficult or foreign trade and seafaring dominate the citizens' lives.

12. Moderate Climate: The state should have a temperate climate conducive to both mental and physical activities.

13. Balanced Citizenry: Citizens of the ideal state should possess a balance of courage and intellect.

14. Class Structure: Aristotle’s ideal state comprises six classes: agriculturists, artisans, a warrior class, a leisured class, priests, and administrators.

Best Practicable Polity 

• Aristotle recognized that the ideal state is often unattainable and provided a detailed account of the best achievable or realistic state.
• This best practicable state avoids the extremes of democracy and oligarchy, which Aristotle refers to as Polity or Constitutional Government.
• Aristotle uses the term polity in two senses: general and particular.
• In the general sense, polity refers to any constitution, whether it be monarchy, aristocracy, oligarchy, or democracy.
• In the particular sense, polity denotes a blend of democratic and oligarchic elements while avoiding their excesses.
• Aristotle criticizes oligarchy for allowing a few rich individuals to dominate many poor people to protect their class interests.

Polity as the Ideal Form of Government 

• Polity strikes a balance between liberty and wealth.
• Aristotle identifies three classes in every state: a very rich class, a very poor class, and a middle class.
• Moderation and the mean are crucial for a well-functioning society.
• When wealth and other advantages  are held in moderation, people are better able to follow reason.
• Extreme advantages or disadvantages, such as being  exceptionally beautiful, strong, nobl, or wealthy, or being very poor, weak, or disgraced, can hinder a person’s ability to reason effectively.

Classification of Constitutions or States

Aristotle's classification of governments is based on two key principles: quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative aspect focuses on the number of people in whom sovereign power is vested (one, few, or many), while the qualitative aspect considers the end or purpose for which the government exists. Here's a breakdown of Aristotle's classification:

1. Quantitative Principle: 

• Monarchy: Power is vested in one individual.
• Aristocracy: Power is held by a few qualified individuals.
• Polity: Power rests with many, typically the middle class.

2. Qualitative Principle: 

The qualitative aspect distinguishes between pure and perverted forms of government based on their intent:

•  Pure Forms: These forms aim at the common good:
• Monarchy: Rule by one for the benefit of all.
• Aristocracy: Rule by a few for the common good.
• Polity: Rule by many for the collective welfare.
•  Perverted Forms: These forms serve the interests of the rulers:
• Tyranny: Rule by one for personal gain.
• Oligarchy: Rule by a few for their own benefit.
• Democracy: Rule by many, but often for the interests of a powerful few.

3. Aristotle's Preference: 

• According to Aristotle, the Polity was the most balanced and practical form of government, combining elements of liberty and wealth.
• He believed that the best constitution was one that was practicable  and effective in real-world conditions.
• While he had a preference for Polity, Aristotle also acknowledged that a well-informed and enlightened Monarch  could be a suitable ruler.
• Aristotle noted that Monarchy and Aristocracy often degenerate over time and lack the moderation and stability characteristic of  Polity.

4. Cycle of Change in Governments: 

• Aristotle observed that no form of government or constitution is permanent; they all undergo transformation over time.
• This transformation occurs in a cyclical manner:
•  Monarchy (a normal government) eventually degenerates into Tyranny.
•  Aristocracy degenerates into Oligarchy.
•  Polity degenerates into Democracy.
• Interestingly, Democracy itself is not a final solution; it too is replaced by Monarchy, thus continuing the cycle.
• This cyclical process of change in forms of government is known as Aristotle's Cycle of Change.

Aristotle's Perspective on Slavery 

Aristotle, as a realist, defended slavery as a necessary institution for the proper functioning of society and the family unit.

Justifications for Slavery 

Aristotle offered three main justifications for slavery:

1.  Natural 
2.  Usefulness 
3.  Expediency 

Natural Justification 

• Aristotle rejected the radical Sophists' view that slavery was unnatural because all men are equal by nature.
• He believed that nature has ordained slavery, as not all individuals are equal in capability or virtue.
• According to Aristotle, nature endows different individuals with different qualities, necessitating that the superior rule over the inferior.
• He viewed slavery as a natural manifestation of the principle that the inferior should be subordinate to the superior.
• Aristotle argued that the master’s knowledge and the slave’s physical gifts are both natural endowments.
• He contended that moral and intellectual development is only possible if the slave meets the material needs of the master, allowing the master the leisure to pursue intellectual and moral activities.
• Aristotle likened the necessity of slaves for a householder to the necessity of musical instruments for a musician.

Usefulness Justification 

• Aristotle justified slavery on the grounds of usefulness by arguing that it benefits the community as a whole.
• He believed that when masters are freed from material concerns, they can focus on public affairs and the pursuit of virtue.
• Slaves provide valuable services by meeting the material needs of their masters and allowing them the leisure to engage in virtuous activities.
• According to Aristotle, slavery is beneficial not only to the master but also to the slave, as the slave can share in the virtues of the master and achieve a form of moral elevation.
• The slave’s association with the master brings about what Aristotle termed 'derivative excellence.'

Expediency Justification 

• Aristotle justified slavery on the grounds of expediency, noting its crucial role in maintaining and operating the Greek economy of his time.
• A significant portion of the population in city-states was comprised of slaves, and their emancipation would have disrupted the social order and balance of power.
• Such disruption could have led to social disorder and chaos, which Aristotle sought to avoid.

Conditions and Limitations on Slavery 

• Aristotle did not endorse slavery unconditionally; he believed it was justifiable only under certain circumstances.
• He favored the enslavement of those he deemed mentally deficient but did not support the enslavement of prisoners of war, as military victory did not imply intellectual superiority or mental inferiority.
• Aristotle disapproved of the forcible conversion of prisoners of war into slaves.
• He advocated for the proper treatment of slaves by their masters and supported state intervention to punish cruel masters.
• Aristotle also supported the emancipation of slaves who demonstrated respectable behavior and developed abilities in reasoning and virtue.

Aristotle’s Views on Citizenship 

In ancient Athens, citizenship was a privilege reserved for a specific class of people. These citizens held public offices and actively participated in state activities. Citizenship was determined by heredity, meaning only the sons of citizens were entitled to become citizens. The majority of the population, including slaves and resident aliens, were excluded from this privilege and treated as inferior to citizens.

Three Other Conditions for Citizenship 

Aristotle identified three additional conditions for citizenship, though these were not absolute requirements:

• Residence 
• Enjoyment of legal rights, such as the right to sue and be sued 
• Descent from a citizen 

Criteria for Citizenship 

According to Aristotle, certain criteria must be met to become a citizen:

• A person must have the capacity to both rule and be ruled.
• If an individual lacks either of these qualities, they cannot be a citizen.
• Aristotle emphasized the importance of leisure as a fundamental condition of citizenship. Without leisure, an individual cannot develop virtue or fully dedicate themselves to state responsibilities.
• Property ownership and the possession of slaves were seen by Aristotle as beneficial for attaining citizenship.
• Citizenship was reserved for those who could actively participate in the governance of the state, which required leisure time.
• Aristotle excluded the elderly and children from citizenship because the former were not physically capable of participating in state affairs, and the latter lacked the mature judgment necessary for such involvement.

Exclusions from Citizenship 

Aristotle outlined certain groups of people who could not become citizens:

• Those lacking the capacity to rule or be ruled could not be citizens.
• Individuals engaged in manual labor to meet their basic needs were not considered suitable citizens.
• Aristotle excluded slaves, resident aliens (involved in trade and business), foreigners, mechanics, laborers, and others engaged in manual labor from citizenship.
• Women were also excluded from state activities because Aristotle deemed them intellectually inferior.

Aristotle on Property 

Aristotle's views on property significantly differ from those of Plato.

Justifications of Private Property 

• Benefit to Individuals and Society: Aristotle argues that private property benefits both individuals and society by providing  incentives for hard work, which contributes to social progress.
• Source of Self-Respect and Pleasure: Ownership of property is seen as a source of self-respect, self-love, and pleasure.
• Promotion of Virtues: Private property encourages virtues like kindness, liberality, hospitality, and uprightness, essential for human development.
• Historical Evidence: Aristotle points to the  longstanding existence and resilience of private property throughout history as a justification for its continuance, emphasizing the importance of historical experience.

Methods of Holding and Using Private Property 

• Common ownership with private use of property.
• Property owned by some individuals, with its produce used by the entire community.
• Common ownership and shared use of property.

Kinds of Property 

Aristotle categorizes property into two groups:

• Animate Property: This includes living instruments such as slaves.
• Inanimate Property: This includes non-living instruments.

Regardless of the type of property, its value lies in its ability to contribute to a good and healthy life. Property is essential for the proper functioning of a household, as it providesbasic necessitieslike food, shelter, and clothing, and protects against harsh climatic conditions. Without a certain level of these necessities, a household cannot operate effectively.

Wealth Acquisition Methods 

• Natural Methods of Wealth Acquisition: These methods include cattle raising, agriculture, and hunting. They focus on obtaining necessary subsistence and are considered natural.
• Unnatural Methods of Wealth Acquisition: These methods include trade, barter, and commerce. They aim for endless accumulation of wealth rather than mere maintenance of life.

Aristotle on Revolutions 

Aristotle's insights on revolutions are elaborated in Book V of his work Politics, derived from an analysis of 158 constitutions of Greek city-states. His examination was prompted by the frequent governmental shifts in these city-states during his era.

Aristotle's interpretation of 'revolution' is broad, encompassing any significant change in constitution, such as a shift from monarchy to oligarchy, or even a change in ruling power without altering the government structure. For instance, a transition from monarchy to tyranny, or vice versa, is considered a revolution. This indicates that Aristotle viewed revolution not merely as a political change but in a much broader context.

Causes of Revolution  

• Aristotle categorizes the causes of revolution into general and particular causes.

General Causes of Revolution 

• One of the primary general causes of revolution, according to Aristotle, is the inherent desire of people to be treated as equals. People tend to envy the privileges of a few and aspire to eliminate the existing disparities.
• The lack of proportionate equality and a fair deal fosters a sense of injustice, leading to factionalism within the city. When a segment of the community feels that its rights are being infringed upon and justice is not being served, it breeds discontent.

Particular Causes of Revolution 

• Aristotle identifies specific attributes that can trigger a revolution:
• Thoughtless admission of corrupt and disloyal officers  to civil and military positions can incite revolutionary sentiments.
• Hostility among different races within a state can create irreconcilable interests, leading to serious consequences.
• Excessive and irrational use of force by authorities may be tolerated for a while, but eventually, it will provoke a backlash from the populace.
• Divergent claims supported by different factions can also pave the way for revolution.
• Demands for social, political, and economic equality from those in authority, while those in power seek to accumulate more privileges, can lead to conflict.
• Granting undue prominence to certain individuals can spark public resentment and threaten the unity of the state.
• Concentration of absolute power in the hands of a few can breed discontent among those excluded from power.
• Misuse of authority by those in power and a culture of discrediting opponents can foster revolutionary fervor.
• Disproportionate increase of any part of the state—whether territorial, social, or economic—can lead to instability.

Revolution in Specific Types of States 

• Aristotle also examines the causes of revolution in specific types of states, including democracies, oligarchies, aristocracies, and polities.
• In democracies, revolutions may arise from the excessive exercise of power and unjust criticism of the wealthy by demagogues.
• In oligarchies, revolutions can result from competition and discord among the ruling oligarchs or from the tyrannical nature of their rule.
• In aristocracies, revolutions are often led by those who feel deprived of honor and recognition, which are bestowed upon a select few.
• In polities, revolutions may occur due to an unstable mix of oligarchic and democratic elements.
• In monarchies and tyrannies, revolts are triggered by hatred and contempt for rulers who exhibit arrogant and oppressive behavior.

Prevention of Revolution: 

• Aristotle not only identifies the causes of revolution but also outlines measures to prevent it, reflecting his deep understanding of existing constitutions and his preference for stable governance.
• The methods proposed by Aristotle for preventing revolution fall into two broad categories: general and particular.

General Means of Prevention: 

• First, efforts should be made to boost the self-confidence of all societal sections by eliminating injustices and treating different classes with consideration. All offices should be accessible based on merit, not monopolized by any particular class.
• Second, a spirit of lawfulness should be instilled among citizens. Even minor legal violations should be taken seriously to uphold this spirit.
• Third, citizens should be educated about the constitution so they understand its workings and can adjust accordingly, minimizing the chances of revolution.
• Fourth, even minor changes in the status quo should be addressed promptly, as neglect can lead to major revolutions.
• Fifth, no individual or group should be allowed to accumulate excessive power. This prevents the neglect of weaker sections' interests and reduces resentment.
• Sixth, public offices should not become avenues for personal gain. Efforts should be made to curb bribery and illegal practices, and public offices could be made honorary.
• Seventh, public offices should not be permanent. Higher offices should be temporary to prevent long-term power retention, which can jeopardize the country's interests and security.

Particular Methods for Prevention of Revolution 

• After suggesting general methods, Aristotle proposes specific methods for preventing revolutions in different forms of government.
• In democracy, the rich should be assured that their properties will not be redistributed, and they should be allowed to participate in governance.
• In aristocracy and oligarchy, fairness should be maintained, and no single person or group should be allowed to dominate. The poor should also be involved in governance.
• In polity, a proper mix of democratic and oligarchic elements can prevent revolutions.
• In tyranny, revolutions can be deterred by:
• Developing the intellectual life of citizens.
• Engaging people in non-political activities to limit their political involvement.
• Keeping citizens in poverty to ensure they are preoccupied with economic issues.
• Fostering distrust and hostility among different societal groups to prevent unified opposition against the ruler.
• Establishing a robust espionage system, including female spies.
• Adopting an aggressive and expansionist policy.

Aristotle's Views on Justice 

Aristotle placed significant importance on the concept of justice, distinguishing between two types: complete justice and particular justice. 

Complete Justice: 

• Moral virtue related to the regulation of public and social relations.
• Involves total obedience to the law.
• Possible only in an ideal state.

Particular Justice: 

• Focuses on the distribution of offices and adherence to rules of proportionate equality.
• Involves the distribution of wealth, honor, and goods.

Distributive Justice: 

• Concerned with balanced allocation of offices based on individual worth.
• Primarily focused on political privileges.
• Preventive measure against revolution.
• Ensures each person receives what is due to them as a member of society.
• Involves appropriate distribution of rewards based on individual merit.

Corrective Justice: 

• Relates to voluntary and commercial transactions such as hiring, selling, and securing loans.
• Involves involuntary actions affecting life, property, honor, and freedom.
• Fundamentally negative in nature, focusing on commercial transactions.
• Aims to restore lost rights to individuals.