Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) | Political Science for CUET(PG) - CUET PG PDF Download

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Life Sketch 

Early Life and Struggles

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland, to a middle-class French family. His mother died during childbirth, leaving his father to raise him.
• Rousseau's father, unable to provide proper education and care due to his unstable character, struggled to bring up the child.
• When Rousseau was just ten years old, his father had to flee Geneva, and Rousseau was placed under the care of an uncle.
• At a young age, Rousseau worked as an apprentice under a harsh engraver for about three years.
• By the age of sixteen, he left home and embraced a life of wandering. Unlike other philosophers like Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau did not receive a formal education or find a benefactor. Instead, he experienced a life filled with poverty and hardship.

Emergence in Political Thought

• Rousseau gained recognition in political thought in 1749 when he wrote an essay titled "Has the Progress of Sciences and the Arts Helped to Purify Corrupt Morals?" for the Dijon Academy.
• This essay not only earned him the first prize but also established his reputation in the literary circles of Paris.

Works of Rousseau 

•  Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, 1750
•  Discourse on the Origin and Foundation of Inequality, 1754
•  Discourse on Political Economy, 1755
•  French Encyclopaedia, 1755
•  The Social Contract or the Principles of Political Right, 1762
•  La Nouvelle Heloise, 1761
•  Emile (a treatise on education), 1762
•  Dialogues and Reveries, 1778
•  The Confessions, 1782

Influences on Rousseau 

Rousseau's political philosophy played a significant role in shaping the Enlightenment across Europe and had a lasting impact on the French Revolution, as well as on modern political, economic, and educational thought. He was not just an advocate for the people; he was deeply connected to them, embodying their essence. His strong ties to Geneva fostered his appreciation for democracy and democratic institutions. Among the political thinkers who profoundly influenced him were Plato, Locke, Montesquieu, and Hobbes.

Rousseau and the French Revolution 

• Rousseau's impact on the French Revolution was acknowledged by Edmund Burke, who critiqued Rousseau in his work "Reflections on the Revolution in France." This critique resonated throughout Europe and even led Catherine the Great to prohibit Rousseau's writings.

Rousseau and the American Revolution 

• Rousseau had minimal influence on the Founding Fathers of the United States, despite some similarities in their ideas.
• Both Rousseau and the Founding Fathers believed in the self-evident truth that "all men are created equal" and the importance of educating citizens of a republic at public expense.
• Rousseau's writings may have indirectly influenced American literature through the works of writers like Wordsworth and Kant.

Contributions of Rousseau 

Rousseau made significant contributions to modern political and social thought through his works.

• Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract lay the groundwork for contemporary political and social theories.
• His romantic novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761) played a crucial role in the evolution of preromanticism and romanticism in fiction.
• Emile, or On Education (1762) is an educational treatise that explores the role of the individual within society.
• Rousseau's autobiographical works, such as the posthumously published Confessions (written in 1769) and the unfinished Reveries of the Solitary Walker (composed between 1776 and 1778), exemplify the late 18th-century "Age of Sensibility." These works marked the beginning of the modern autobiography and emphasized subjectivity and introspection, characteristics that later defined contemporary writing.

Political Ideas of Rousseau

Rousseau's political ideas encompass a range of concepts that delve into the nature of society, governance, and individual rights. Here are the key aspects of his political thought:

• Romantics
• Human Nature
• State of Nature
• Modern Civilization
• Critique of Civil Society
• Ideas of Inequalities
• Social Contract
• General Will
• Popular Sovereignty
• Self-Development and Direct Democracy

These ideas reflect Rousseau's deep engagement with the issues of his time and his vision for a more just and equitable society, rooted in the principles of freedom, equality, and collective well-being.

Romanticism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is often viewed as a counter-Enlightenment thinker, representing a romantic revolt against the Enlightenment's emphasis on scientific and rational learning. In his early work, "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts," Rousseau argues that science does not necessarily improve morality or contribute significantly to human happiness. He emphasizes the importance of the natural order and the natural state of man.

Rousseau's ideas align with the core tenets of Romanticism, which advocates a return to life and encourages reliance on emotion, intuition, and instinct over reason in guiding human behavior. His autobiography, "Confessions," marks the beginning of a new era of thought that eventually evolves into Romanticism. Rousseau believes that the promptings of the heart are more trustworthy than the logic of the mind, emphasizing the importance of drawing inspiration from one's own feelings rather than cold reason. He argues that the mind can be corrupted by an overemphasis on rationality.

Despite living in an era of scientific advancement, Rousseau does not see any inherent goodness in humanity. He perceives industrialization as a source of increased misery, and his brand of romanticism advocates for a return to a more natural and authentic way of life.

Rousseau's Critique of Enlightenment Values 

• Some of Rousseau's thoughts reflect his counter-Enlightenment perspective. He exhibits a similar disdain for reason, knowledge, and individualism as he does for the sciences. This frontal attack on Enlightenment values positions Rousseau as a pivotal figure in the shift towards Romanticism, where emotion and instinct are celebrated over reason and scientific rationality.

Human Nature

Rousseau on Freedom in the State of Nature 

Rousseau emphasizes freedom as a central theme in his exploration of human nature, arguing that individuals in the state of nature experience a form of freedom that is both total and enviable. This total freedom is attributed to two key factors:

• Physical Freedom: Natural man enjoys physical freedom because he is not subject to the constraints of a repressive state apparatus or domination by fellow humans.
• Psychological and Spiritual Freedom: He is psychologically and spiritually free as he is not enslaved by the artificial needs that characterize modern society.

Freedom from Need 

The concept of freedom from need is a crucial and revolutionary aspect of Rousseau's philosophy. He argues that modern man's enslavement to his own needs is the root cause of various societal problems, including exploitation, domination, low self-esteem, and depression.

Rousseau posits that humans are fundamentally respectable, and it is the incorrect social actions that lead to negative behavior. He identifies two primary instincts that govern human behavior:

• Self-love: This instinct drives individuals to prioritize their own well-being and interests.
• Mutual aid or sympathy: Although less significant from an individual perspective, this instinct prompts individuals to do more good than harm to others.

Rousseau acknowledges that these two instincts can sometimes clash, and this conflict gives rise to a third instinct known as conscience. Conscience plays a crucial role in helping individuals navigate the struggle between self-love and mutual aid, guiding them in making moral decisions.

State of Nature

To determine which societal institutions and structures go against man's natural goodness and freedom, Rousseau first needs to define what he means by the "natural." He strips away the ideas that have been imposed on human nature through centuries of development and concludes that concepts like property, law, and moral inequality have no basis in nature. For Rousseau, modern society often falls short when compared to the "state of nature."

In his works, such as the Discourse on Inequality and The Social Contract, Rousseau describes the state of nature as a hypothetical, prehistoric time and place where humans live uncorrupted by society. The most important feature of the state of nature is that people enjoy complete physical freedom and are free to do as they please.

The Vulnerability of Need 

Rousseau analyzes the concept of human need as a key element in comparing modern society with the state of nature.

• Needs, according to Rousseau, arise from passions that drive individuals to desire certain objects or activities.
• In the state of nature, human needs are limited to essentials for survival and reproduction, such as food, sleep, and sex.
• Conversely, in modern society, as cooperation and division of labor increase, human needs expand to include numerous non-essential items.

Features of State of Nature 

• Rousseau's perspective on the state of nature differs significantly from those of Hobbes and Locke.
• He argues that in the state of nature, all men were identical and led non-violent lives.
• Property was collectively owned, and people lived simple, contented lives.
• Since resources were abundant and private property had not yet emerged, individuals enjoyed a peaceful and untroubled existence.
• Although this was a time of tranquility, society was not yet organized.
• People lived solitary, happy, free, and independent lives.
• There were no laws or moral codes, as these institutions rely on reason, which was absent during this period.
• Eventually, the social instinct compelled individuals to abandon solitary living and form communities.
• Over time, social institutions began to develop.
• The instinct of self-love transformed into pride, leading to the notion of private property.
• Rousseau suggests that the first person to enclose a piece of land and claim it as "mine" was the true founder of civil society.

Possibility of Legitimacy in Modern Life 

• Rousseau's exploration of how modern life differs from the state of nature includes a specific focus on the authenticity of human life in contemporary society.
• By authenticity, Rousseau refers to how closely modern life reflects the positive qualities of human nature.

Modern Civilizations

Rousseau expressed several negative views about modern civilization compared to the state of nature. Here are the key points:

• In a prize-winning essay from 1749, Rousseau criticized the Enlightenment. He was asked whether the progress of science and the arts had corrupted or purified morality.
• Rousseau believed that science was not saving us but instead causing moral decay.
• He thought that progress was an illusion and that what seemed like advancement was actually a regression.
• According to Rousseau, the arts of civilized society merely covered the chains of oppression with flowers.
• He argued that the development of modern civilization had not made people happier or more virtuous.
• Rousseau believed that virtue was achievable in a simple society where people lived modest and frugal lives.
• In contrast, modern sophisticated society corrupted individuals, and greater sophistication led to greater corruption.
• For Rousseau, abundance meant luxury, and luxury was a notorious source of corruption.
• He claimed that luxury weakened nations as it weakened individuals.
• Rousseau pointed to Athens, which he saw as a center of vices, doomed to perish due to its elegance, luxury, art, and sciences.

Critique of Civil Society

According to Rousseau, the first person who enclosed a piece of land and claimed it as "mine," convincing others to believe him, was the true founder of property and civil society. Although the origin of property was accidental, it could not be undone because those who claimed ownership soon became employers. Where there were once two equal natural men, there now existed a superior and an inferior, establishing the institution of inequality through private property.

Rousseau praises the "natural man" and criticizes the so-called "civilized men," arguing that the issue lies not with humanity but with the society in which people live. He contends that the origin of civil society and laws imposed new constraints on the poor and enhanced the powers of the rich, permanently destroying natural liberty.

Rousseau on Inequality 

In his book Origin and Foundation of Inequality among Men, Rousseau discussed the factors that led to the emergence of inequality. His other work, the Social Contract, aimed to establish a society based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Equality Vs Inequality 

Equality is a relative concept that must be understood in the context of existing inequalities. It is not an absolute notion but rather depends on the specific circumstances and comparisons within a society.

Inequality, on the other hand, is a universal feature of all societies. It is a fundamental aspect of social relations and has been a persistent reality throughout human history. Despite its prevalence, inequality is often legitimized in contemporary society based on various factors such as:

• Natural abilities
• Superior race
• Ancestry
• Age
• Sex
• Religion
• Military strength
• Culture
• Wealth
• Knowledge

Rousseau distinguishes between natural or physical inequality and  moral-political inequality.

Natural Inequality

• Natural inequality is determined by nature and includes differences such as age, health, bodily strength, and mental and emotional qualities.
• These inequalities are inherent and not subject to political debate.

Moral-Political Inequality 

• Moral-political inequality, on the other hand, arises from social institutions and includes privileges related to wealth, honor, and power.
• This type of inequality is based on social conventions and the consent of individuals.

Rousseau's exploration of inequality in his work Discourses on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men (1754) raises important questions about the nature of humanity in the state of nature, the origins of inequality among people, its consequences, and how civilization perpetuates inequality.

Rousseau identifies two stages in the state of nature:

1. The Golden Age: 

• In this earlier stage, humans lived as noble savages, wandering through forests without industry or language.
• They were free from the concerns of war and peace, neither helping nor needing help from others.
• Life was characterized by self-sufficiency 
• with individuals focused only on their basic needs, without any concept of good or bad, right or wrong.

2. The Development of Inequality: 

• Rousseau discusses the emergence of inequality through the establishment of laws  and the right to property, which created divisions between the rich and the poor.
• The institution of magistracy led to the creation of the powerful and the weak.
• Finally, the conversion of arbitrary power into legitimate power established the relationship between masters and slaves.

Social Contract 

Rousseau's Perspective 

• Rousseau, like Hobbes and Locke, believed that people entered into a social contract to escape the harsh conditions of the post-property stage of nature.
• However, Rousseau's concept of the social contract differs significantly from those of Hobbes and Locke, representing an evolution of their ideas.
• He aligned with Hobbes in terms of methodology but shared Locke's emphasis on substance.

Key Idea: Freedom and Chains 

• Rousseau opens the Social Contract with the powerful statement, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” This highlights the contrast between natural freedom and the constraints imposed by civil society.
• He argues that the "chains" of civil society stifle the natural birthright of individuals to physical freedom.

State of Nature vs. Civil Society 

•  In the state of nature, Rousseau claims that individuals were free, equal, and independent, unburdened by any chains.
• With the advancement of civilization and the increase of prosperity, the need for a state and civil institutions  emerged to protect these gains.
• However, this progress led to the loss of natural equality and the bliss of a simpler, more natural life.

Emergence of Inequalities 

• Rousseau observes that with the establishment of civil society, various forms of inequality and bondage began to emerge.
• He critiques civil society for failing to uphold the promises of equality and individual liberty that were supposed to be guaranteed to individuals upon entering society.

Rousseau's Quote 

“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.” This quote encapsulates Rousseau's belief in the inherent freedom of individuals and critiques the false sense of superiority that comes with power.

General Will

The theory of General Will, as proposed by Rousseau, is considered one of his most groundbreaking and influential contributions to Political Theory. It is not only a central concept in Rousseau's work but also an original and historically significant idea.

Real Will vs. Actual Will 

• To understand Rousseau's concept of General Will, it's important to differentiate between Actual Will and Real Will.
• Actual Will, according to Rousseau, is selfish, irrational, and focused solely on individual interests without regard for societal welfare.
• In contrast, Real Will is higher and nobler, driving individuals to consider both their own well-being and that of society.
• Real Will is based on reason and is permanent, not momentary.
• The General Will, therefore, is the sum of all Real Wills, reflecting reason and foresight.

General Will vs. Will of All 

• Rousseau distinguishes between General Will and Will of All.
• Will of All represents a majority view focused on the welfare of a few, while General Will considers the good of the entire community.
• Rousseau explains this distinction by stating that General Will aims at the common interest, whereas Will of All is a sum of particular interests.

Attributes of General Will 

• The General Will has several key characteristics:
• Like human will, it cannot be represented by anyone else.
• It is supreme, and disobedience to it is not tolerated. Rousseau states that those who refuse to obey the General Will will be compelled to do so by the community, effectively forcing them to be free.
• The General Will is a single harmony that cannot be estranged; estrangement would lead to its demise.
• It is inseparable, similar to an individual's personality. If divided, it ceases to be General Will and becomes sectional.
• The General Will is unrepresentable. Rousseau advocated for direct democracy through the General Will.

Discourse on Political Economy (1955) 

In the Discourse on Political Economy (1955), Rousseau introduced the concept of General Will to argue that “The body politic is also a moral being possessed of a will; and this general will, which tends always to the preservation and welfare of the whole and of every part and is the source of the laws, constitutes for all the members of the state, in their relations to one another and to it, the rule of what is just or unjust.”

Sovereignty 

In Rousseau's social contract, sovereignty is not assigned to a single individual or a specific group. Instead, it is vested in the community as a whole through the concept of the General Will. At first glance, this seems to support the idea of popular sovereignty, where the power lies with the people. However, a closer examination of Rousseau's writings reveals that he grants absolute power to the ruler under the guise of popular government.

Rousseau states, "Whoever refuses to obey the General Will shall be compelled to do so by the whole body." This indicates that the General Will is endowed with unlimited authority. To give the sovereign a more democratic appearance, Rousseau argues that the General Will is always right and aims for the public good. Since the General Will is seen as working for the common welfare, people are morally obligated to follow its decisions. Legally, individuals are also required to obey the General Will because, at the outset of the social contract, they relinquished all their rights to it unconditionally.

Rousseau's concept of sovereignty is similar to Hobbes' in that both envision an absolute authority. The main difference lies in the distribution of power: while Hobbes concentrates power in a single individual, Rousseau distributes it among the community or the General Will. Despite this difference, both Rousseau and Hobbes advocate for an all-powerful sovereign whose authority cannot be challenged. This comparison leads to the notion that "Rousseau’s Sovereign is like Hobbes’ Leviathan, but without a head," emphasizing the absolute nature of sovereignty in both theories.

Themes & Arguments 

Discrepancies of Rousseau 

• Rousseau's political philosophy contains significant inconsistencies. In his works, such as Discourses on the Origin of Inequality and Emile, he criticizes the concept of private property.
• He strongly advocates for democracy and extensive rights for the people. However, paradoxically, he ends up establishing a system with an absolute sovereign wielding dictatorial powers.