J.S. Mill (1806-1878) | Political Science for CUET(PG) - CUET PG PDF Download

Life Sketch 

• John Stuart Mill is considered the last of the utilitarians and the foremost of the individualists.
• He was the eldest son of James Mill.
• At the age of 16, Mill founded the Utilitarian Society and became a member of the Speculative Debating Society and the Political Economy Club. His involvement in these groups significantly influenced his thinking.
• Mill was also profoundly influenced by other thinkers and writers, particularly Coleridge and Wordsworth.

Works of J.S. Mill 

• System of Logic (1843)
• Principles of Political Economy (1848)
• Enfranchisement of Women (1848)
• On Liberty (1859)
• Dissertations and Discussions (1859)
• Thoughts on Parliamentary Reforms (1859)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1860)
• Utilitarianism (1863)
• Women Suffrage (1873)
• Subjection of Women (1869)
• Three Essays on Religion (1874)

Mill and Utilitarianism 

• Mill was a strong advocate of Bentham’s ideas and radical political views.
• His deep belief in Bentham’s principles is clear from his statement that the foundation of morals should be utility or the greatest happiness principle.
• This principle suggests that actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they lead to unhappiness.
• Here, happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain, while unhappiness is pain and the lack of pleasure.
• In his well-known essay Utilitarianism, Mill elaborated on the doctrine of utilitarianism, introducing several concepts that diverged from strict hedonism.
• By doing so, he softened the rigidness of Bentham’s ethics and aligned utilitarianism more closely with common sense.
• As noted by Ivor Brown, Mill made utilitarianism more humane and less consistent.

Modifications Made by Mill on Utilitarianism 

• Difference between self-interest and general happiness: Mill believed that the utilitarian standard should focus on the greatest amount of happiness for everyone, not just the individual's own greatest happiness.
• Quality of pleasures: Mill argued that pleasures vary not only in quantity but also in quality. He distinguished between higher and lower pleasures, famously stating that it is better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig, and better to be a dissatisfied Socrates than a satisfied fool.
• Critique of Bentham: Mill disagreed with Bentham's view that pleasure is the only cause and motive for individual actions.
• Concept of liberty: Mill's idea of liberty differed from Bentham's. While Bentham did not see liberty as important because it did not contribute to the greatest happiness, Mill had a different perspective.
• Public and personal interests: Bentham tried to align public and personal interests through the concept of super-added pleasures and pains. Mill, on the other hand, viewed these as external sanctions and sought to establish this relationship based on internal sanctions and sentiments of conscience.
• Voting and legal system: Mill advocated for public voting instead of secret voting, which Bentham supported. He also favored special actions for women, while Bentham did not consider this. Mill was more focused on addressing flaws in the existing legal system.

On Liberty 

• John Stuart Mill was a strong advocate for individual liberty and believed in minimizing government interference in people's lives. He viewed democracy, public opinion, and collectivism as potential threats to individual freedom, arguing that these forces should be kept within their proper limits.
• Mill believed that allowing each person to develop their own personality would enrich society by creating a diverse range of characters, ultimately leading to greater happiness for everyone.
• He argued that individuals should be free to act as they wish as long as their actions only affect themselves and do not harm others. However, he also believed that the state could impose restrictions on individual liberty if their actions harmed the interests of other members of the community.

Actions of Individuals 

• Mill divides individual actions into two categories: self-regarding and others-regarding.
• He allows complete freedom for self-regarding actions but permits the state or society to impose restrictions on actions that affect others.
• However, drawing a clear line between these two categories is challenging, as most actions, even those deemed self-regarding, have an impact on the community.
• Mill justifies state intervention in self-regarding actions for the individual's own good.
• For instance, preventing someone from crossing a dangerous bridge is seen as promoting their self-interest and not violating their liberty.
• Critics argue that this opens the door to excessive state interference, leading some, like Professor Barker, to view Mill's concept of liberty as hollow.
• In defining the boundaries of human liberty, Mill emphasizes the inward domain of conscience, freedom of thought and feeling, and the absolute right to express opinions on any subject.
• He advocates for freedom of taste and pursuits and the right to unite for any purpose that does not harm others.
• Mill strongly defends the freedom of thought, asserting that the state has no right to suppress independent thinking, even if it is incorrect.
• Truth emerges from the clash of differing opinions.
• Historical examples show that ideas once deemed intolerable by authorities are now accepted as good.

Harm Principle 

• The  Harm Principle, as proposed by J.S. Mill in his book  ‘On Liberty’, asserts that the only legitimate reason for exercising power over an individual in a civilized society is to prevent harm to others. Mill believed that individual actions should only be limited to the extent that they prevent harm to other people.

The Subjection of Women 

• In 'The Subjection of Women', J.S. Mill advocated for the equal status of women in three key areas:
• Suffrage 
• Education and Employment 
• Equal Opportunities 
• Mill argued that the subordination of women was mainly due to their physical strength compared to men and societal conditioning from childhood, which taught women to be submissive and accommodating rather than  independent.
• Similar to Mary Wollstonecraft, Mill believed that women, like men, possess the potential for greatness and can succeed given a level playing field.
• As a member of the English Parliament, Mill supported the Married Women’s Property Bill, further demonstrating his commitment to women's rights.

Representative Government 

• Mill's Perspective on Government: Mill believed that the best form of government is not the most efficient but one that serves as a  school of citizenship, promoting political education and training for citizens.
• Criteria for Good Government:  Mill emphasized that a good government should promote the virtue and intelligence  of the people. It should foster the moral and intellectual qualities of citizens and increase the sum of good qualities among the governed.
• Representative Government: Mill considered representative government the best because it brings the  intelligence and honesty of the community and its wisest members to bear on the government more effectively than other forms.
• Weaknesses in Democracy: Mill identified weaknesses in the existing democratic system, such as insufficient representation for minorities and the tyrannical attitude of the majority.
• Proposals for Improvement: Mill proposed reforms to ensure better representation and proportional representation so that each section of society is represented in proportion to its voting strength.
• Voting Qualifications: Mill advocated for property and educational qualifications for voters, believing that intelligence, education, and virtue  are more important than ignorance and indifference.
• Taxation and Voting: Mill argued that those who pay taxes should elect the assembly that votes on taxes, as non-taxpayers might be less frugal with public money.
• Public Voting: He encouraged public voting  instead of secret ballots.