Protests and Movement During Colonial Period and Social Reforms | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Protest and Movement

• An element of dissatisfaction with the existing system can be found in every society. Dissatisfaction may be caused by poverty, social discrimination or lack of privilege. People may develop a strong desire to change the situation by raising their voices against the existing order. They may start questioning established practices of society. This difference of opinion actually reflects a desire for change. Social movements emerge under this situation. However, a movement does not occur suddenly. It begins with dissent, moves towards protests and finally takes the form of a social movement. This sequence – dissent, protest and social movements – represents different phases of social change. But in some cases all these may be in operation at the same time.
• The term dissent refers to ideas and activities which are different from those prevailing in a society at a given point of time. Differences of opinion and disagreement on certain issues are bases of dissent. Dissent is thus the beginning of a movement for change. For example, the struggle against the inhuman practice of untouchability in India was initiated only when the people who were suffering from this cruel practice raised their voices against it.
• Protest is generally specific in nature. When dissent is expressed openly it assumes the form of protest When a dissenting opinion crystallizes further the situation of protest is created. Thus protest, in order to be meaningful has to be supported by dissent in respect of the institutional arrangements prevailing in society at a given point of time. In fact, a consciousness of injustice and deprivation takes place at this stage. Accordingly, we may say that the social sharing of discrimination and deprivation is the starting point of protest. Thus, we may say that dissent expresses dissatisfaction with the existing situation and registers disagreement Protest, on the other hand, is a formal declaration of dissent and represents a more crystallized state of opposition and conflict.

Social Movements

• Social movements hold significant sociological interest because they serve as a primary source of social change.
• A social movement can be defined as a sustained collective effort aimed at bringing about some aspect of social change.
• M.S.A Rao emphasizes that a social movement involves continuous collective mobilization, either through informal or formal organization, with the goal of altering the existing system of relationships. Rao also underscores the importance of ideology as a key component of a social movement.

Protests and Movements during Colonial Period

• During the colonial period, protests and movements primarily focused on socio-religious reforms.
• A reform movement seeks to enhance conditions within the existing social framework without fundamentally altering the societal structure.
• Reforms are often intertwined with belief systems, rituals, and lifestyles of the concerned individuals.
• One of the most notable reform movements in India was the Bhakti (devotional) movement during medieval times.
• The Bhakti movement was a nationwide initiative that involved lower caste individuals and the impoverished, protesting against ritualism and caste barriers.
• The movement aimed to reform the worldview and social practices of the people, advocating partial changes in values rather than a radical transformation of the social system.

Socio-Cultural Regeneration in Nineteenth Century India

• Socio-cultural regeneration in nineteenth-century India was initiated by various reform movements, starting with the formation of the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal in 1828.
• The Brahmo Samaj, along with its branches across the country, played a crucial role in advocating for socio-religious reforms.

Need for Socio-Religious Reforms

• According to K. L. Sharma, the need for socio-religious reforms in British India arose due to several factors:
• The selection of texts from various commentaries on the code of Manu was not always enlightened.
• The reliance on law courts for interpretation led to greater conservatism.
• The law, as applied by law courts and British judges, combined ancient Hindu and Victorian English conservatism, particularly concerning women, inheritance, marriage, and the rights of married women.
• The recognition of individual property rights within a joint family or granting property rights to women took a long time to be implemented.
• The joint family, caste system, and Hinduism were pivotal institutions that discouraged any legislation weakening them, either manifestly or latently.

Expressions of National Awakening

• A.R. Desai argues that reform movements during the British period expressed national awakening due to the contradictions between the old value system and new socio-economic realities.
• These movements aimed to revive old religious practices in the context of nationalism and democracy, which were seen as fundamental principles for the emergence of modern India.
• Modern society emphasized liberty, freedom of competition, individual contact, and the freedom to own and manipulate property.
• Individualism became a key aspect of modern society, contrasting with the pre-capitalist authoritarian society that upheld social distinctions based on birth and sex and subordinated individuals to caste and the joint family system.
• The development of the new society required the abolition of privileges based on birth or sex.
• Reform movements opposed medievalism in socio-cultural aspects, targeting the caste system and its associated institutions, polytheism, unnecessary religious rites, and dogmas.

Religio-Reform Movements

• Religio-reform movements were national in their content but religious in their form.
• In addition to the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, other notable reform movements among Hindus included the Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra and the Arya Samaj in Punjab and northern India.
• Reformation efforts were also undertaken by organizations led by backward castes and members of other religious groups.
• For instance, the Satya Sodhak Samaj founded by Jotiba Phule in Maharashtra and the Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Sabha in Kerala were established by backward castes.
• Similarly, the Ahmadiya and Aligarh movements represented the spirit of reform among Muslims.
• The Sikhs had their Singh Sabha, and the Parsees had the Rehnumai Mazdeyan Sabha.
• While the major focus of these movements and organizations was on religious reform, social concerns were also integral to their agendas.
• These movements brought about significant changes in the lives of the people.

The Brahmo Samaj

The Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy on 20 August 1828. The name "Brahmo Samaj" means "One God Society." Raja Ram Mohan Roy, known as the father of the modern Indian renaissance, was a progressive thinker who believed in the reform of religion and society.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy's Beliefs and Contributions

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a scholar who mastered several languages, including English, Bengali, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek. He studied Hindu and Muslim laws, literature, and philosophy.
• He advocated for monotheism, the belief in one God, and rejected the worship of images.
• Roy was a secularist inspired by Christianity, Islam, and the Upanishads. He believed that India could adopt modern ideas without discarding its spiritual and cultural heritage.
• He promoted modern science, technology, and English education. He was also a champion of women's rights and opposed practices like sati (widow burning) and child marriage.
• Through the Brahmo Samaj, Roy advocated for women's inheritance rights, inter-caste marriage, and the abolition of the caste system.
• Despite being influenced by Western culture, Roy considered himself a Hindu and maintained traditional practices, such as the recital of the Vedas.

Debendranath Tagore and Keshub Chandra Sen

• After Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s death, Debendranath Tagore strengthened the Brahmo Samaj by propagating 'Brahmo Dharma' and preaching the Vedas and Vedantism. He introduced new systems of initiation and divine service while maintaining the traditions of Roy.
• Keshub Chandra Sen later emerged as a dynamic leader advocating for radical reforms and spreading the Brahmo movement across India. He emphasized female emancipation, education, and the abolition of the caste system.
• Sen's 'New Dispensation' thesis promoted a synthesis of different religions and treated religion as a practical means to solve human problems. His focus on monotheism and radical changes impacted the Samaj significantly.

Splinter Groups and Evolution

• Differences between Debendranath and Keshub led to the formation of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj by Keshub’s followers, focusing on constitutionalism and radical reformism.
• The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj emphasized monotheism and implemented progressive programs like widow remarriage, abolition of polygamy and early marriage, and higher education for women.
• It also attacked caste rigidities and promoted inter-caste commensal relations.

The Prarthana Samaj

The Prarthana Samaj, which emerged from the Brahmo Samaj, was established in 1867 under the guidance of Justice Mahadeo Govinda Ranade, drawing inspiration from Keshub Chunder Sen.

Unlike a new religion or sect, the Prarthana Samaj saw itself as a movement within the broader Hindu community, deeply rooted in the Vaishnavite tradition of Maharashtra. Influenced by saints like Namdeo, Tukaram, and Ramdas, they focused on social reforms such as:

• Inter-caste dining and marriages
• Widow remarriage
• Improvement of the status of women and depressed classes

The Samaj set up various organizations and institutions, including:

• An asylum and orphanage at Pandharpur
• Night schools
• A widow home
• A mission for the depressed classes

Justice Ranade dedicated his life to the Prarthana Samaj, contributing to the formation of the Widow Marriage Association in 1861 and the Deccan Education Society in 1884-85. He emphasized two key ideas:

• The importance of the whole person
• Continuity amid radical change

Ranade advocated for the integration of these principles into reformist philosophy.

The Arya Samaj

Founded in 1875 by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the Arya Samaj emerged as a reformist movement advocating a return to the Vedas. Swami Dayananda, a Sanskrit scholar, emphasized the Vedas as eternal and infallible, much like Ram Mohan Roy. His work,Satyartha Prakash, interpreted the Vedas and rejected polytheism, idolatry, and caste-based restrictions.
Swami Dayananda's influence extended through various social reforms, including:

• Opposition to child marriage
• Promotion of female education
• Encouragement of inter-caste marriages and widow remarriage

To combat child marriage, the Arya Samaj set the minimum marriageable age at 25 years for boys and 16 years for girls. The Samaj also addressed crises like floods and famines, opening orphanages and widow homes across various religious sites. Education reform was another significant focus, with the revival of the ancient Gurukula system of Hindu education, alongside the recognition of English education's value.
After Swami Dayananda's death, the Samaj continued its mission through leaders like Lala Hansraj,Pandit Guru Dutt,Lala Lajpat Rai, and Swami Shradhanand.

The Ramakrishna Mission

• Founded in May 1897 by Narendranath Dutta(later known as Swami Vivekananda), the Ramakrishna Mission represents a blend of ancient Indian and modern Western cultures. The Mission's founder,Ramakrishna Paramahansa, emphasized the unity of all religions, believing that different paths lead to the same ultimate goal.
• Ramakrishna's teachings, which highlighted God as both one and many, served as the foundation for the Mission. The Ramakrishna Math, established by Ramakrishna and his disciples, aimed to create a community of monks dedicated to renunciation and practical spirituality.
• Swami Vivekananda expanded the Mission's second objective, focusing on preaching, philanthropic, and charitable works. He traveled extensively, promoting Ramakrishna's teachings and Indian philosophy. The Mission's headquarters at Belur, near Kolkata, serves as a religious trust nurturing the spiritual life of monastic members, while the Mission engages in charitable activities, viewing all individuals as manifestations of the Divine.
• Central to the Mission are religious and social reforms, with an emphasis on developing inherent spirituality. Vivekananda's messages, based on Ramakrishna's spiritual experiences, the teachings of the Upanishads and the Gita, and the examples of the Buddha and Jesus, aimed to make Vedanta practical in everyday life.
• The Mission, not a proselytizing body or sect of Hinduism, prioritizes social service and the upliftment of religious and spiritual life. It propagates the universal principles of Vedanta and showcases a true picture of India to the world. The Mission's work includes opening schools and dispensaries, aiding victims of natural disasters, and publishing books and journals on Vedanta.

The Servants of Indian Society

• The Servants of Indian Society was a socio-religious reform organization founded in 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a prominent leader in the Indian National Congress.
• Inspired by the socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century, the Society aimed at training "national missionaries" to serve India and promote the true interests of the Indian people through constitutional means.

Activities and Initiatives

The Society undertook various welfare programs and activities aimed at improving the conditions of the masses in India. Some of these activities included:

• Establishment of night nurseries for children.
• Setting up libraries and reading rooms.
• Formation of cooperative societies.
• Providing legal advice and aid to the poor and illiterate.
• Organizing excursions for slum-dwellers.
• Offering facilities for sanitary work,medical relief,Boys’ Clubs, and Scout Corps.

Leadership and Legacy

After Gokhale's death in 1915, Srinivas Shastri succeeded him as the president of the Society. Under his leadership and that of other members, the Society contributed significantly to various social and political causes. Notably:

• Narayan Malhar Joshi, a follower of Gokhale, founded the Social Service League in Bombay in 1911, focusing on improving life and work conditions for the masses.
• Joshi also established the All-India Trade Union Congress in 1920, furthering workers' rights and welfare.

Impact

• The Servants of Indian Society and its offshoots played a crucial role in advocating for the rights and welfare of the underprivileged sections of society.
• Their emphasis on education, social service, and political activism laid the groundwork for future social reform movements in India.

Reform Movements Among Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various reform movements emerged among Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis, each aiming to address social issues and promote progressive values within their communities.

Muslim Reform Movements

Four notable revivalist movements among Muslims were:

• The Ahmadiya Movement, which emphasized universal brotherhood and modern interpretations of Islam.
• The Aligarh Movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, focused on liberal education and social reform.
• Sir Mohammad Iqbal’s Movement, advocating for spiritual and intellectual revival.
• Sheikh Abdul Halim Sharar’s Movement, promoting social and religious reform.

These movements shared common themes of universal brotherhood, liberal education, and progressive interpretations of the Quran.

Sikh Reform Efforts

• The Sikhs undertook significant reforms to address the management of Gurudwaras, moving away from the traditional oversight by Mahants.
• The establishment of Khalsa College in Amritsar marked a pivotal step in promoting education and reform within the Sikh community.

Parsi Reform Initiatives

• The Parsis focused on discarding orthodox practices, particularly regarding the education, marriage, and social status of women.
• These efforts aimed to modernize Parsi society and promote gender equality.

Impact

• The reform movements among Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis reflect a broader trend of social awakening and a desire for progress within these communities.
• Each group sought to address internal issues while fostering a sense of modernity and social responsibility, contributing to the diverse tapestry of reformist thought in India during this period.

The Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement emerged as a response to British colonial policies, particularly the partition of Bengal in 1905. It aimed to promote indigenous goods and foster a sense of nationalism among the Indian populace. Key figures like Ganesh Vasudev Joshi (Lokahitawadi) played a significant role in advocating for Swadeshi principles.

Aims and Goals

The movement sought to instill a nationalist spirit by encouraging the use of Indian-made products and rejecting foreign goods. It aimed to rejuvenate Indian society by fostering a sense of pride in indigenous culture and goods.

Key Principles

Prominent figures within the movement, such as Ganesh Vasudev Joshi, outlined several key principles for societal reform:

• Devotion to God: Emphasizing the importance of worship and spirituality.
• Abolition of Ceremonials: Advocating for the elimination of unnecessary rituals, except for initiation, marriage, and death ceremonies.
• Freedom of Expression: Promoting individual liberty in thought, speech, and writing.
• Gender Equality: Ensuring equal rights for men and women in social and religious functions.
• Emphasis on Morality: Prioritizing moral values over ritualistic practices.
• Rejection of Caste Pride: Encouraging charity and goodwill towards all, irrespective of caste.
• Patriotism: Fostering love for the motherland and prioritizing the country's welfare.
• People's Rights: Emphasizing the rights of the people over governmental authority.
• Commitment to Learning: Encouraging the pursuit of knowledge and truth as guiding principles.

Transformation and Synthesis

• The Swadeshi Movement represented a significant effort to rejuvenate India's socio-cultural fabric in response to colonial pressures.
• It called for a synthesis of tradition and modernity, advocating for the abandonment of outdated practices while embracing progressive ideals.
• The movement aimed to create a dignified and self-reliant India by promoting indigenous products and fostering a sense of national pride.

The Satyashodhak Samaj Movement

The Satyashodhak Samaj movement, led by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra, emerged as a powerful force against Brahmanical dominance and social injustices. Phule's advocacy for women's education, widow care, and the upliftment of marginalized communities laid the groundwork for a transformative social movement.

Phule's Advocacy and Writings

• Phule's writings, including Saravajanik Satyadharma Pustak and Gulamgiri, inspired the masses by challenging the Brahmanical hegemony and advocating for social justice.
• His establishment of schools for girls, untouchables, and the widows’ home reflected his commitment to education and empowerment.

Satyashodhak Samaj Formation

• The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded to combat Brahmanical dominance and promote positive actions for women's liberation, education, and economic betterment.
• Phule's use of Rajah Bali as a symbol contrasted with the Brahmanical symbol of Rama, reinforcing the anti-Brahmanic stance.

Identity and Solidarity

• The movement fostered a sense of identity among middle castes, such as Kunbis,Malis, and Dhangars, who viewed Brahmanas as exploiters.
• The Maharaja of Kolhapur's support in the 1990s and the spread of the movement to southern states in the early 20th century strengthened the anti-Brahmanic solidarity.

Regional and Ethnic Awareness

• The SNDP movement among the Ezhavas in Kerala exemplified regional awareness against Brahmanical exploitation.
• The Ezhavas, like Nadars in Tamil Nadu and Idigas in Karnataka, sought to address their low status and discrimination through organized movements.

Transformative Impact

• The SNDP movement, under the ideology of Sri Narayan Guru Swamy, aimed for transformative structural changes, including upward social mobility and a shift in power dynamics.
• The federation of backward castes into a cohesive group marked a significant shift in the traditional power structure.

The Satyashodhak Samaj movement and its offshoots played a crucial role in challenging Brahmanical hegemony and advocating for the rights of marginalized communities. Through education, social reform, and the promotion of equality, these movements laid the foundation for a more equitable and just society in Maharashtra and beyond.

The SNDP Movement

The SNDP (Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana) movement emerged as a significant social reform movement in Kerala, primarily among the Ezhavas, a caste involved in toddy-tapping. The movement sought to address the socio-economic disadvantages faced by the Ezhavas and other backward classes, challenging the dominance of Brahmanas and upper castes.

Objectives and Ideology

• The SNDP movement, guided by the ideology of Sri Narayan Guru Swamy, aimed to uplift the Ezhavas and other backward classes by advocating for rights such as admission to public schools, government employment, temple entry, and political representation.
• The movement highlighted the grievances of the Ezhavas, who felt deprived of opportunities and privileges enjoyed by the upper castes, particularly in education and employment.

Regional Context and Caste Dynamics

• The SNDP movement is considered a regional response to the socio-economic disparities in Kerala, where the Ezhavas constituted a significant portion of the population.
• Similar to the experiences of Nadars in Tamil Nadu and Idigas in Karnataka, the Ezhavas sought to address their low status and discrimination through organized collective action.

Transformative Impact

• The SNDP movement brought about transformative structural changes, including upward social mobility for the Ezhavas and a shift in the traditional power dynamics among castes.
• The movement fostered a sense of solidarity among backward castes, leading to a federation of various caste groups united against Brahmanical dominance.

Caste Reforms and Mobility

• Caste reforms and mobility movements emerged across India during the British period, aiming to challenge Brahmanical hegemony and elevate the status of backward castes.
• These movements sought to imitate the lifestyles of upper castes, emphasizing education and prestigious occupations to improve social standing.

Ethnic Awareness and Politicization

• The caste reforms and mobility movements engendered ethnic awareness among various caste groups, politicizing their identities and grievances against upper castes.
• By challenging the dominance of Brahmanas and upper castes, these movements aimed to create a more equitable social structure.

The SNDP movement and other backward class movements played a crucial role in addressing historical injustices and advocating for the rights of marginalized communities. Through collective action, these movements sought to rectify socio-economic disparities and foster a sense of identity and solidarity among backward castes in the face of Brahmanical dominance.

Far-Reaching Impact of 19th Century Socio-Religious Reform Movements

The 19^th-century socio-religious reform movements in India had profound and far-reaching impacts on society. These movements played a crucial role in shaping the socio-cultural landscape of the country and laid the groundwork for future social and political changes.

1. National Awakening and Revival of Hinduism:

• The movements contributed significantly to a national awakening among the masses, fostering a sense of identity and purpose.
• They aimed at reviving Hinduism as a rational and tolerant religion, addressing the challenges posed by Islam and Christianity during different historical periods.

2. Social Justice and Equality:

• There was a strong emphasis on combating indignities and injustices faced by women, untouchables, and other oppressed groups.
• The movements advocated for equality and challenged the rigidities of the caste system, promoting a sense of co-existence among different cultures and religions.

3. Empowerment of Women:

• The reformists were deeply moved by the atrocities committed against women, such as purdah,child marriage,hypergamy,dowry, and various forms of sex-based inequality.
• Legislations were enacted, and social actions were initiated to improve the status of women, marking a significant shift towards enlightenment and welfarism.

4. Critique of Caste System:

• The movements attacked the hereditary nature and rigidities of the caste system, advocating for a more flexible and inclusive society.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Awakening:

• The reform movements were not just about social issues; they also aimed at stopping the moral and material decadence of the society.
• They sought to rejuvenate Indian culture and society by integrating modern ideas with traditional values, thus ending India’s cultural and intellectual isolation.

6. Response to Colonialism:

• The reform movements were partly a response to the humiliation of colonial rule. By addressing social evils and promoting a modern outlook, they aimed to uplift the cultural roots of the rising middle classes.
• This was crucial in building a sense of national identity and resilience against colonial dominance.

7. Challenges Faced by Reformers:

• Despite their efforts, reformers faced strong opposition from orthodox sections of society.
• They were subjected to abuse,persecution, and even assassination attempts for their progressive views.

8. Cultural Roots and Nationalism:

• The reformers provided the rising middle classes with cultural roots to cling to, reducing the sense of humiliation imposed by colonial rule.
• They emphasized the importance of modern scientific knowledge and a secular outlook, contributing to the evolution of national consciousness and resistance against colonial ideologies.

9. Limitations of the Movements:

• Despite their positive impacts, these movements had limitations, such as a narrow social base, focusing mainly on the educated urban middle classes while neglecting the vast peasantry and urban poor.
• Their reliance on past greatness and scriptural authority sometimes fostered mysticism and compartmentalized communities, hindering a unified national identity.

In summary, the socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century had a multifaceted impact on Indian society, promoting social justice, equality, and a modern outlook while also facing significant challenges and limitations. Their legacy continues to influence contemporary discussions on social reform, cultural identity, and national consciousness.