Indian Nationalism - 2 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Between 1919 and 1922, people in India stood against the British rulers in two big movements:

• Khilafat Movement: This was about supporting Turkey, whose leader, the Khalifa, was treated badly by the British after World War I.
• Non-Cooperation Movement: This was a protest against the British government, and even though it started for different reasons, it joined hands with the Khilafat Movement.

Both movements decided to follow a common plan of action, which was to resist without using violence.

The Khilafat issue was not directly linked to Indian politics but it provided the immediate background to the movement and gave an added advantage of cementing Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.

Background

The background of the two movements was provided by a series of events after the First World War.
The year 1919, in particular, saw a strong feeling of discontent among all sections of Indians for various reasons:

1. Economic Troubles: The country faced economic problems after the war. Prices of things went up, Indian industries were not doing well, and taxes and rents increased. This made life hard for everyone, and people started disliking the British rule even more.
2. Unfair Laws and Violence: The Rowlatt Act was a law that upset people. Martial law in Punjab and the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre showed how harsh and uncaring the British rule could be. The Hunter Committee, which looked into the Punjab violence, didn't help, and the British Parliament even supported the actions of General Dyer, who was responsible for the massacre.
3. Failed Reforms: The changes made by the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms didn't satisfy the Indians who wanted self-government. The system of dyarchy they introduced didn't work well.

During this time, Hindus and Muslims started coming together politically:

• The Lucknow Pact in 1916 encouraged cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim League. The protest against the Rowlatt Act brought Hindus and Muslims, as well as other groups, together.
•  Younger, more radical Muslim leaders like Mohammad Ali, Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasan Imam gained influence. They were more interested in actively participating in the nationalist movement and had strong anti-British feelings.
• In this environment, the Khilafat issue became important. The Non-Cooperation Movement started around this issue, bringing Hindus and Muslims together in a historic way.

The Khilafat Issue

1.  Background: Unrest After World War I: After World War I, many in India were dissatisfied with the British government. Economic difficulties, unfair laws, and failed reforms led to widespread discontent among different sections of the Indian population.
2. Emergence of a Radical Nationalist Trend among Muslims: During this time, a radical nationalist trend was growing among younger Muslims and traditional Muslim scholars critical of British rule. They were particularly angered by the treatment of Turkey by the British after the war.
3. The Khilafat Issue: Catalyst for Protest: Muslims worldwide considered the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, known as the Khalifa. Turkey had sided against the British during the war, and after the war, Britain was harsh on Turkey. Turkey lost land, and the Khalifa was removed from power, causing anger among Muslims globally, including in India.
4.  Demands and Formation of the Khilafat Committee: In India, Muslims demanded two things from the British:

• Retention of the Khalifa's control over Muslim sacred places.
• Ensuring the Khalifa had sufficient territories after territorial arrangements.

In early 1919, leaders like the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani formed the Khilafat Committee. The committee aimed to force the British government to change its stance toward Turkey, setting the stage for a nationwide protest.

Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 

1. Need for Congress Support in Khilafat Movement: Success of Khilafat movement depended on Congress support. Gandhi favored using peaceful protests (satyagraha) and non-cooperation against the government for Khilafat.
2. Disagreement within Congress Not everyone in Congress agreed on the form of political action. Tilak opposed an alliance with Muslim leaders on a religious matter and doubted the effectiveness of peaceful protests.
3. Gandhi's Efforts to Convince Tilak Gandhi tried to persuade Tilak on the virtues of satyagraha and the need for an alliance with Muslims over the Khilafat issue.
4. Opposition to Gandhi's Plan: Some in Congress opposed parts of Gandhi's plan, such as boycotting councils.
5. Approval of Congress for Political Action: Eventually, Gandhi secured Congress approval for his political action plan. Seen as an opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims and involve various groups in the national movement.
6. Loss of Faith in C onstitutional Struggle: Congress was losing faith in constitutional struggle, especially after events in Punjab and the biased Hunter Committee Report.
7. Public Discontent: Congress recognized the eagerness of the masses to express their dissatisfaction.
8.  Surprising Support from Muslim League: The Muslim League decided to fully support the Congress and its protests on political issues.Signified a crucial step in the national movement against British rule.

The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement

• February 1920 In early 1920, a joint Hindu-Muslim deputation was sent to the viceroy to seek redress of grievances on the issue of Khilafat.
• In February 1920, Gandhi announced that the issues of the Punjab wrongs and constitutional advance had been overshadowed by the Khilafat question.
• May 1920 Treaty of Sevres with Turkey, signed in May 1920, completely dismembered Turkey.
• June 1920 An all-party conference at Allahabad approved a programme of boycott.
• August 31, 1920, The Khilafat Committee started a campaign of non-cooperation and the movement was formally launched.
• September 1920 At a special session in Calcutta, Congress approved a non-cooperation programme till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and Swaraj was established.

 The programme was to include:

1. Boycott of government schools and colleges.
2. Boycott of law courts and dispensation of justice through panchayats instead.
3. Boycott of legislative councils.
4. Boycott of foreign cloth and use of khadi instead, also the practice of hand-spinning to be done.
5. Renunciation of government honors and titles, the second phase could include mass civil disobedience including resignation from government service, and non-payment of taxes.

• December 1920: At the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress

1. An important change was made in the Congress creed: Now, instead of having the attainment of self-government through constitutional means as its goal, the Congress decided to have the attainment of swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means, thus committing itself to an extraconstitutional mass struggle.
2. Some important organisational changes were made: A congress working committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up to lead the Congress from now onwards, provincial congress committees on linguistic basis were organised, ward committees were organised, and the entry fee was reduced to four annas.
3. Gandhi declared that if the non-cooperation programme was implemented completely, swaraj would be ushered in within a year.
4. Surendranath Banerjea founded the Indian National Liberal Federation and played a minor role in national politics henceforward.

 The Spread of the Movement

The adoption by the Congress of the non-cooperation movement initiated earlier by the Khilafat Committee gave it a new energy, and the years 1921 and 1922 saw an unprece dented popular upsurge. 

• Gandhi and Ali Brothers' Nationwide Tour: Gandhi, along with the Ali brothers, went on a journey across the country. During this time, many students left government schools and colleges to join about 800 national schools and colleges that were set up. These educational institutions were led by people like Acharya Narendra Dev, C.R. Das, Lala Lajpat Rai, Zakir Hussain, and Subhash Bose. They included institutions like Jamia Millia in Aligarh, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, and Bihar Vidyapeeth.
• Lawyers Giving up Practices: Many lawyers, including prominent figures like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, T. Prakasam, and Rajendra Prasad, gave up their practices.
• Protests and Demonstrations: As a form of protest, people publicly burned heaps of foreign cloth, leading to a significant drop in their imports. Picketing of shops selling foreign liquor and toddy also took place in many areas. The Tilak Swaraj Fund received overwhelming support, collecting one crore rupees. Congress volunteer corps acted as a kind of parallel police force.
• Call for Muslim Resignation from the Army: In July 1921, the Ali brothers urged Muslims to resign from the Army, considering it against their religious beliefs. They were arrested in September 1921. Gandhi supported their call and asked local Congress committees to pass similar resolutions.
• Civil Disobedience and Local Movements: The Congress then called on local bodies to start civil disobedience if they felt the people were ready for it. Already, there were movements like the no-tax protests against union board taxes in Midnapore (Bengal) and Guntur (Andhra). In Assam, there were strikes in tea plantations, steamer services, and Assam-Bengal Railways, with J.M. Sengupta being a notable leader in these strikes. 
• Prince of Wales' Visit: The visit of the Prince of Wales in November 1921 led to strikes and demonstrations. 
• Local Movements and Unrest: The atmosphere of resistance and unrest gave rise to various local movements such as the Awadh Kisan Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Eka Movement in Uttar Pradesh, the Mappila Revolt in Malabar, and the Sikh agitation for the removal of mahants in Punjab.

(a) People’s Response

• Middle Class - Initially, the middle classes led Gandhi's movement, but later they became hesitant. Cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, with elite politicians, showed limited response to Gandhi's call. The appeal for resigning from government service and surrendering titles wasn't taken seriously. Newer political figures, like Rajendra Prasad in Bihar and Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat, strongly supported non-cooperation, seeing it as a practical alternative to terrorism in the fight against colonial rule. 
• BusinessClass - They supported the economic boycott due to the nationalists' emphasis on Swadeshi. However, a segment of big business remained skeptical, possibly fearing potential labor unrest in their factories. 
• Peasants - Their participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement was extensive. Despite Congress being against class warfare, the masses, particularly in Bihar, engaged in confrontations over social issues. The movement became a platform for peasants to express their grievances against British rule and their discontent towards Indian landlords and traders. 
• Students - They played a vital role in the Movement, actively volunteering and leaving government schools and colleges to join newly established national institutions like Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Jamia Millia Islamia, and others. 
• Women - Women broke away from purdah, contributed their ornaments to the Tilak Fund, and actively participated in large numbers. They played a significant role in picketing shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. 
• Hindu- MuslimUnity - During the movement, the significant participation of Muslims and the maintenance of communal unity, despite events like the Moppila Uprisings, were notable achievements. In many areas, two-thirds of those arrested were Muslims, showcasing an unprecedented level of involvement. Leaders, including Gandhi, addressed Muslim masses from mosques, and Gandhi even spoke at meetings of Muslim women, where he was the only male not blindfolded. 

(b) Government Response: Gandhi had discussions with Viceroy Reading in May 1921, but they fell apart because the government wanted Gandhi to persuade the Ali brothers to remove violent parts from their speeches. Gandhi realized the government was trying to create problems between him and the Khilafat leaders, so he didn't agree. In December, the government got tough on protestors, making volunteer groups illegal, banning public meetings, silencing the press, and arresting many leaders, except for Gandhi.

(c) The Last Phase of the Movement: In 1921, the Congress members were pushing Gandhi to start civil disobedience. In a meeting in Ahmedabad, Gandhi was given the sole authority on this issue. On February 1, 1922, Gandhi said he would start civil disobedience in Bardoli (Gujarat) if the government didn't release political prisoners and remove press controls. However, the movement was quickly stopped before it could begin. 

• Chauri Chaura Incident - Chauri-Chaura (Gorakhpur district in United Provinces) has found a place in history books due to an incident of violence on February 5, 1922, which was to prompt Gandhi to withdraw the movement.

• Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli in February 1922 and resolved to stop all activity that led to the breaking of the law and to get down to constructive work.
• In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in jail. He made the occasion memorable by a magnificent court speech: “I am here, therefore, to invite and submit cheerfully to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to me to be the highest duty of a citizen.”

Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement

• The movement was also showing signs of fatigue. In November 1922, the people of Turkey rose under Mustafa Kamal Pasha and deprived the sultan of political power. In 1924, the caliphate was abolished.

Evaluation of the Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement

• Urban Muslims in National Movement: The Non-Cooperation Movement involved urban Muslims in the national struggle.
• Communal Aspect in National Politics: However, it also introduced some religious divisions in national politics. Muslim sentiments were part of a broader anti-imperialist feeling.
• Failure to Achieve Secular Political Consciousness: National leaders struggled to raise Muslim political awareness to a level of secular consciousness.
• Politicization Across Society: The movement reached every corner of the country. It politicized various segments of the population—artisans, peasants, students, urban poor, women, traders, etc.
• Revolutionary Character of the National Movement: The widespread involvement of people imparted a revolutionary character to the national movement.
• Challenging Colonial Rule Myths: Two myths of colonial rule were challenged:

1. The economic critique had already exploded the myth that colonial rule was in the interest of Indians.
2. Satyagraha and mass struggle questioned the myth of the invincibility of colonial rule.

• Overcoming Fear of Colonial Rule: The masses, through their involvement, overcame the fear of colonial rule and its repressive organs.

Peasant Movements And Trade Union Movements

Peasant Movements

Indigo Agitation of Bengal (1859­-60)

• Oppression and exploitation of the peasants of Bengal by the Eu­ropean monopolistic indigo planters (vivid portrayal of this oppression by Dina Bandhu Mitra in his play, “Nil Darpan” 1860).
• Refusal of the peasants to cultivate indigo and their armed re­sistance against the platers (Bishnu Charan Biswas and Digambar Biswas) played a prominent role in this resis­tance).
• Organisation of powerful campaign by the Bengal intelligensia in support of the rebellious peasants.
• Appointment of the Indigo Commission of 1860 by the Govern­ment and removal of some of the abuses of Indigo cultivation.

Pabna Movement of Peasant Unrest in East Bengal (1872-76)

• Oppression of the peasantry by Zamindars through frequent recourse to ejection, harassment, illegal seizure of property, arbitrary enhancement of rent and use of force.
• Organisation of no-rent unions by the peasants and their armed attacks on the Zamindars and their agents (Pabna district was the storm-centre of this movement, and hence the movement is known as the “Pabna Movement”)
• Suppression of the movement only after armed intervention by the government .
• Appointment of an enquiry committee to look into the com­plaints of the peasantry and the enact­ment of the Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 which conferred permanency of tenure upon some classes of tenants.

Deccan Riots (1875)

• Excessive land revenue de­mand of the British facilitating exploi­tation of peasantry by money-lenders.
• Social boycott of money-lend­ers by the peasants and its transfor­mation into armed peasant revolt in the Poona and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra (here the peasants forc­ibly seized from the money-lenders debt bonds, decrees and other documents, and set them on fire).
• Failure of the police to sup­press the riots which were finally put down with army help.
• Appointment of a Commis­sion and the enactment of the Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act of 1879 which prohibited the imprisonment of the peasants of the Maharashtra Deccan for failure to repay debts to the mon­eylenders.

Peasant Unrest in Punjab (1890- 1900)

• Resentment of the peasants against the growing alienation of their lands to the moneylenders.
• Assaults and murders of money-lenders by the peasants.
• Enactment of the Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1902 which prohib­ited the transfer of lands from peas­ants to moneylenders and the mort­gages for more than 20 years.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Oppression of the peasants of Champaran (a district in Bihar) by the European indigo planters through the system of “Tinkathia” (a system in which European planters holding thikadari leases from the big local zamindars made peasants cultivate in­digo on part of their land at unremunerative price) and by charging Sharabheshi’ (rent-enhancement) or ‘Tawan’ (lumpsum compensation) if the peasants wanted to be exempted from the obligation to grow indigo.
• Refusal of the peasants ei­ther to grow indigo or to pay the illegal taxes; arrival of Gandhi along with Rajendra Prasad, J.B. Kripalani, A.N. Sinha, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadev Desai, etc., in order to conduct a de­tailed enquiry into the condition of the peasantry and to get their grievances redressed.
• Initial attempt of the govern­ment to suppress the movement; Suc­cess of Gandhi in forcing the govern­ment to appoint an Enquiry Commit­tee with himself as one of its mem­bers; Acceptance of the recommenda­tions of the Committee by the Gov­ernment and the abolition of the “Tinkathia” system.

Khaira Satyagraha (1918)

• Failure of crops due to drought in the Khaira district of Gujarat; refusal of the Government to exempt the peasants from the payment of land-revenue.
• Launching of a no-revenue campaign by the Khaira peasants un­der the leadership of Gandhi and Vallabhai Patel.
• Suspension of the land-rev­enue collection for the time being by the government.
• Moplah Rebellion (1921)
• Oppression and exploitation of the Muslim Moplah peasants of Malabar (N. Kerala) by the Hindu Zamindars (Jennis) and British govern­ment.
• Outbreak of the rebellion in August 1921 (after a police raid on Tirurangadi mosque in search of arms) and widespread attacks on police sta­tions, public offices, communications, and houses of oppressive landlords and moneylenders.
• Total loss of control by the Brit­ish over Ernad and Walluvanad taluks for several months; Establishment of “Republics” at several places by the Moplahs under leaders like Kunhammad Haji, Kalathingal Mammad, Ali Musaliar, Sithi Koya Thangal. etc.
• Bloody suppression of the rebel­lion by the British, leaving 2337 rebels killed, 1650 wounded and more than 45,000 as prisoners. (At Podnur 66 Moplah prisoners were shut in a rail­way wagon and died of suffocation on 20th November 1921).
• It was anti-British as well as anti-Zamindar, and to some extent anti-Hindu also because most of the local zamindars were Hindus.

Bardli Satyagraha (1928)

• Enhancement of land revenue by 22% in the Bardoli district of Gujarat by the British Government (1927).
• Organisation of a ‘No Rev­enue Campaign’ by the Bardoli peas­ants under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and their refusal to pay the land revenue at the newly en­hanced rates.
• Unsuccessful attempts of the British to suppress the movement by large scale attachment of cattle and land; appointment of an Enquiry Commit­tee to look into the land revenue as­sessment; Reduction of the land rev­enue on the basis of the Committee’s recommendations .

Emergence of Class-conscious Peasant Organisations

• Organisaffon of Ryots Asso­claffons and Agricultural Labour Unions in the Guntur district of Andhra by N.G. Ranga (July-December 1923) and their gradual spread to Krishna and West Godavari District (1924-26).
• Organisation of Kisan Sabhas in Bengal, Bihar. Uttar Pradesh and Punjab (1926-27).
• Organisations of the Andhra Provincial Ryots Associations by N.G. Ranga and B.V. Ratnam (1928).
• Foundation of the South In­dian Federation of Peasants and Ag­ricultural Labour in 1935 with N.G. Ranga as General Secretary and E.M.S. Namboodripad as a Joint Secretary.
• Holding of the first All-lndia Kisan Congress at Lucknow and the formation of the All-lndia Kisan Sabha (1936). Its first session was presided over by Swami Sahajanand, the peas­ant leader from Bihar. From 1936 onward All India Kisan Day was celebrated on Ist September every year.

Trade Union Movements

First Factories Commission and Act

• Due to the growing menace of all the evils of factory system, the First Factory Commission was appointed in Bombay in 1875 and the First Facto­ries Act was passed in 1881.

Second Factories Commission and Act

• Another Factory Commission was appointed in 1884. Mr. Lokhande organised a conference of workers in Bombay and drew up a memorandum to be presented to the Factory Com­mission.
• This was the beginning of trade unionism in India. The memorandum included demands for a weekly rest, half an hour recess, compensation for disablement, payment of wages not later than 15th of every month, and limita­tion of hours work from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M.
• But the Second Factory Act (1891) which was passed on the rec­ommendations of the second factory commission was another great disap­pointment, because it provided only a few improvements like a weekly holi­day, fixation of working hours for only women and children, but the hours of work for men were still left unregu­lated.

Second Stage (1818-24)

• During the second stage, a good number of trade unions were organised. The Madras Labour Union (1918), was the first trade union of modern type in India. Its President Mr. B. P. Wadia, an active member of Home rule Movement took pains to develop it. Many unions were organised in other places.
• In 1920, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was organised at Bombay by N.M. Joshi and others and 64 trade unions with a total membership of about 1,40,000 were affiliated to it. While the interests of workers of different industries were looked after by the concerned unions, the AITUC looked after the interests of labour in general.
• The rise of trade unions was accompanied by a large number of strikes. The demands of the workers were an increase in wages, grant of bonus, rice allowance, reduction of working hours and extra holiday.
• Another important feature of trade unionism in India during this period was its inability to make much headway in the well established manu­facturing industries like mining, textile, jute, etc. But it was strong and stable among those who are called “white colored employees”.

Third Stage (1924 - 34)

• During this stage the influ­ence of Communist ideology was clearly seen at work. Communists have begun to infiltrate into the trade unions as early as 1920. Their infiltra­tion had brought about a change in the pattern of strikes.
• Trade unionism during this stage received a set back due to the ideological conflicts among the trade unionists. Radical elements with an in­tention to use the trade union move­ment to further their political motives towed the line of the fraternal political body at Moscow. On the contrary, the moderates in trade unions desired to keep the movement away from the communists. Consequently the struggle to capture and strengthen their respec­tive positions in the AITUC began wid­ening the gulf between the Congress and the Communist followers.
• The ideological differences led to the division of the AITUC in 1929, when the moderate faction left it and formed a new organisation, viz. Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF). A further split occured in the AITUC, and a section formed the “Red Tuc”. All these developments occurred when the country was under the impact of economic depression and Civil Disobe­dience Movement.
• One important achievement of the trade union movement during this period was the enactment of the Trade Union Act in 1926. This Act made provisions for voluntary registra­tion and gave certain rights and privi­leges to registered trade unions in re­turn for certain obligations.
• Towards the end of this pe­riod attempts were made to forge unity among various trade unions. The attempts by people like N.M. Joshi, R.R. Bakhale, etc. resulted in the foun­dation of National Trade Union Fed­eration (NTUF) in 1933.

Fourth Stage (1935-39)

• In the fourth stage union ac­tivities were revived and there was also an increase in strikes. There are some reasons for the revival of the union activities during this period:
• The Provincial Congress Minis­tries, which had come into existence with the government of India Act of 1935 had adopted a policy of keeping industrial peace not by suppressing the labour organisations and denying their demands, but by prescribing minimum standards of living and general rights of citizenship.
• The Act of 1935 provided for the election of labour representative through labour or trade union constitu­encies.
• A change of attitude of the em­ployers also encouraged the growth of trade unionism. It had been suggested by the ILO that the employers should not be hostile but friendly towards the trade unions.
• Unity moves were also initi­ated which resulted in the merger of Indian Trades Union Federation (ITUF) with the National Trade Union Federa­tion (NTUF), the merger of the Red Tuc with AITUC and finally the affilia­tion of NTUF with AITUC in 1938.

Fifth Stage (1939-45)

• The fifth stage corresponds with the War period. The World War II indirectly offered unprecedented pro­tection to Indian Industries. The sup­ply of foreign goods was denied to the Indian market partly because there was shortage of shipping facilities and partly because British industries in India and abroad swtiched over to war produc­tion. As a result Indian Industries stepped up their activity. Industrial pro­duction in India increased and estab­lished new records. However, prices rose sharply and inflation prevailed on account of the continuous purchase by Great Britain in India against sterling securities. There was rapid increase in profits but not in the wages.
• Strikes were, however, very few and wherever they were, they brought concessions to workers. The decline in the number of strikes was due to certain factors:
• l The communist leaders who sup­ported war did not favour strikes.
• l Other sections of trade unions did not have the right type of leaders to guide the movement and to formu­late the grievances of the workers.
• l The attitude of the employers was not that hostile.
• l The government of India, un­der the Defence of India Rules, as­sumed powers to prevent strikes and refer any dispute for adjudication and enforce the award.
• On the whole, the importance given to trade unions was enhanced.
• A permanent tripartite collabo­rative, machinery was formed consist­ing of government representatives, labour union leaders and employers.
• And under the National Service Ordinance of 1940, the rights of the workers were protected, while it was made clear that it was their duty to work.
• Likewise the Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance of 1941 pro­hibited the employers from dismissing the workers without valid reasons.

Sixth Stage (1945-47)

• The sixth stage i.e., the post­war period was also marked by a fur­ther growth in trade unionism, since the end of war brought no material benefits to the workers. The rise in prices and the cost of living showed no signs of abatement in the post-war period. The political developments in the country during this period also pro­moted the growth of trade unionism. Every political party wanted to secure a foot-hold in the labour movement. Moreover, the attitude of the govern­ment was also helpful in this regard. Both the Central and State govern­ments, far from suppressing the labour movement, have realised that labour has to play a valuable role in the changed circumstances. So, the Trade Union Act was amended in 1947 to secure compulsory recognition of trade unions by the employers, provided they fulfilled certain requirements.
• Another important feature of trade union movement during this pe­riod was the increase in the number of women member of the trade union. Due to this, their position in trade unions as well as society enhanced con­siderably.
• A large number smaller unions came to be organised. But these small and local unions could not carry out effective collective bargaining and ensure the effective implementa­tion of awards and agreements, while the employees organisations became powerful and centrally organised. This necessitated the formation of new in­ter-state, regional organisations among the workers.
• As a result, the strikes in­creased in number. Bombay and West Bengal, followed by Madras and Uttar Pradesh were the leading states so far as the industrial disputes are concerned.The Government of Independent India was gre- atly worried, becuase the rising unrest caused a  decline in the industrial production. Therefore, in December 1947, an Industries Truce Conference was held and attended by the represen­tatives of government workers and em­ployers. This concil- iated the workers, who accepted the principle of compul­sory conciliation and arbitration by the government and the Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 (which provided for the appointment of concilia- tion machin­ery) was passed.

Miscellaneous Informations

• Rabindranath Tagore re­marked: Rammohan was the only per­son in his time, in the whole world of man, to realise completely the signifi­cance of the Modern Age. He knew that the ideal of human civilization does not lie in the isolation of indepen­dence, but in the brotherhood of interdependence of individuals as well as nations in all spheres of thought and activity.”
• Surendranath Banerjee de­scribed the Derozians as, the pioneers of the modern civilization of Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race whose virtues will excite veneration and whose failings will be treated with gentlest con­sideration.
• The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan: It was a Parsi organisation brought into existence in 1851 under the patronage of Dadabhai Naurojee. It did commend­able service to the Parsi religion and community.
• Mirza Ghulam Mohammed of quadian (Punjab) declared himself the promised Mahdi and started the Ahmediya movement. He was a great reactionary in matters of social reform and opposed the abolition of the Purdah and defended divorce and polygamy.
• Gokhale could not pull on with Tilak, so he started the Servants of India Society in 1885. It aimed at producing national workers for India and promoting interests of the Indians by all means.
• Mr. N.M. Joshi founded the Social Service League in 1909. His ob­ject was to survey the Indian society to ascertain the nature and scope of work needed to reform the Indian Society.
• The evil custom of infanticide was wiped out of this land through the efforts of Lord Bentinck, Wilkinson and others.
• The Charter Act of 1833 abol­ished slavery in India. Slave trade be­came illegal in 1843 while it became a criminal offence under the Penal Code of 1860.
• Rai Sahib Harbilas Sarda put forth a Bill in the Legislative Assembly in 1928 with a view to securing prohi­bition of child marriage. The Bill be­came an Act in 1929 and is called the Sarda Act of 1929. According to this Act, a girl below 14 or a boy below 18 cannot contract marriage.