Violence against Women | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Violence against women is a serious issue that has been recognized as a form of discrimination in various important documents. In 1993, during the World Human Rights Conference in Vienna, gender-based violence was officially acknowledged as a violation of human rights.
That same year, the United Nations defined violence against women as any act of gender-based violence that causes or is likely to cause physical, sexual, or psychological harm to a woman. This includes threats, coercion, and deprivation of liberty, whether they occur in public or private life.

Definition of Violence Against Women

• Violence against women refers to the use of force, either openly or secretly, to take something from a woman against her will, resulting in physical injury, emotional trauma, or both. Liz Kelly defines violence as any physical, visual, verbal, or sexual act experienced by a woman or girl as a threat, invasion, or assault, affecting their ability to control their behavior or interactions. This can happen in various settings such as the workplace, home, streets, or community.
• Gelles and Strauss describe violence as an act intended or perceived to intend to physically harm another person. Schuler defines gender violence as any act involving force or coercion to maintain hierarchical gender relations, specifically targeting women because they are women. Understanding gender violence requires analyzing patterns of violence against women and the mechanisms that sustain these patterns.

Three Categories of Violence Against Women

Violence against women can be categorized into three main types:

1. Criminal Violence

• Rape
• Abduction
• Molestation
• Murder

2. Domestic Violence

• Dowry Death
• Wife Battering
• Sexual Abuse by Kin
• Mistreatment of Widows and Elderly Women
• Torture of Daughter-in-Law to Commit Sati
• Refusing to Give Women a Share in Property
• Forcing Wife or Daughter-in-Law to Undergo Female Foeticide

3. Social Violence

• Eve-teasing
• Forcing a Young Widow to Remarry

Different Kinds of Violence Against Women

Radhika Coomaraswamy, in her report on violence against women for the United Nations, identifies various forms of violence:

1. Violence in the Family

• Physical, sexual, and psychological violence within the family, including:
• Battering: Physical abuse of women by their partners or family members.
• Sexual Abuse of Female Children: Sexual exploitation of young girls within the household.
• Dowry-Related Violence: Violence linked to dowry demands, often resulting in harm or death to the bride.
• Marital Rape: Non-consensual sexual acts within marriage.
• Female Genital Mutilation: Harmful traditional practices affecting women's genitalia.
• Traditional Practices Harmful to Women: Other cultural practices that cause physical or psychological harm to women.

2. Violence in the Community

• Physical, sexual, and psychological violence occurring in the community, including:
• Rape: Forced sexual intercourse.
• Sexual Abuse: Any form of sexual exploitation or harassment.
• Sexual Harassment and Intimidation at Work: Unwanted sexual advances or threats in the workplace.
• Trafficking in Women: Illegal trade of women for purposes such as forced labor or prostitution.
• Forced Prostitution: Coercion into sex work against the individual's will.

3. Violence Condoned by the State

• Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state, regardless of where it occurs.

Margaret Schuler's Categories of Gender Violence

• Margaret Schuler categorizes gender violence into four major types:
• Overt Physical Abuse: Includes acts like battering and sexual assault at home and in the workplace.
• Psycho logical Abuse: Such as confinement and forced marriage.
• Deprivation of Resources: Involves denial of essential resources like health, nutrition, education, and livelihood.
• Commodification of Women: Includes trafficking and prostitution.

Understanding Victims of Violence Against Women

Victims of violence against women can be categorized based on various factors that contribute to their vulnerability. According to Ram Ahuja's empirical study on crime against women, four types of women victims are identified:

Types of Women Victims

• Women with Low Self-Worth: These women suffer from devaluation, altruistic powerlessness, and experience feelings of helplessness, depression, and a poor self-image.
• Women in Stressful Family Situations: This group includes women living in structurally incomplete, economically insecure, morally deviant, and functionally inadequate family environments.
• Women Lacking Social Connections: These women lack social and interpersonal relationships and may suffer from various behavioral problems.
• Women with Problematic Husbands: This category includes women whose husbands are pathological personalities or struggle with alcoholism.

Causal Factors of Violence Against Women

• Social Values: Deeply ingrained societal values that perpetuate gender inequality and violence.
• Patriarchy: The dominant patriarchal system that reinforces male superiority and female subordination.
• Contradictions of Change: Conflicting societal changes that may lead to increased tensions and violence.
• Role of Mass Media: Media portrayals that normalize or sensationalize violence against women.
• Political Violence: Political instability and violence that contribute to a culture of aggression.
• Situal Urge: Situational triggers that provoke violence, such as in cases of wife battering or rape.
• Victim Provocation: Instances where the victim's behavior, often unconsciously, provokes violence.
• Intoxication: Alcohol or drug-induced states that lead to violent behavior, such as in cases of alcohol-related rape.
• Personality Traits: Characteristics such as jealousy, possessiveness, and dominance that predispose individuals to violence.
• Early Life Experiences: Childhood experiences of abuse or exposure to violence that influence adult behavior.
• Gender Relations: The societal construct of male superiority and female inferiority that normalizes violence against women.

Manifestations of Violence

Violence against women can manifest in various forms, including:

• Physical Aggression: Bodily harm such as blows, burns, sexual abuse, and rape.
• Psychological Violence: Insults, humiliation, coercion, blackmail, and control over speech and actions.
• Economic or Emotional Threats: Threats that impact a woman's economic stability or emotional well-being.
• Extreme Cases: Instances where violence leads to death.

Contexts of Violence

Violence against women occurs in three primary contexts:

• Family: The family unit socializes members into hierarchical gender roles and unequal power dynamics.
• Community: Social, economic, religious, and cultural institutions that perpetuate male control over women's sexuality, mobility, and labor.
• State: The state legitimizes male proprietary rights over women, providing a legal framework that supports these hierarchical relations.

Radhika Coomaraswamy's Perspective on Vulnerability

Radhika Coomaraswamy highlights several reasons why women are vulnerable to various forms of violent treatment, all rooted in gender:

• Female Vulnerability: Women face risks of rape, female circumcision/genital mutilation, female infanticide, and other sex-related crimes due to societal constructions of female sexuality and its role in social hierarchy.
• Dependency on Men: Women are susceptible to domestic violence, dowry murder, and sati because of societal views that position women as property and dependents of male protectors (fathers, husbands, sons, etc.).
• Community-Based Violence: Women belonging to certain social groups may be subjected to rape and brutalization during times of war, riots, or ethnic, caste, or class violence as a means of humiliating their community. This is again linked to the perception of women as the property of men.
• Contexts of Violence: Violence against women occurs in the family, community, and state contexts, where key institutions play critical roles in defining, legitimizing, and maintaining violence against women.

Forms of Violence Against Women

Rape, Sexual Harassment, and Abuse

• Rape, sexual harassment, eve teasing, molestation, and abuse are acts that limit women's freedom and reinforce the notion that women need male protection throughout their lives. These instances manifest in cases of gang rapes in colleges and incidents of acid attacks on young girls intended to disfigure them in various parts of India.
• Sexual harassment and abuse in the workplace are often underreported due to fears of job loss and social stigma. It is incorrect to argue that provocative clothing worn by women is to blame for sexual harassment or molestation. Women dressed in sarees or salwar kameez have also been victims of sexual harassment. The root cause of sexual harassment lies in the disregard for women, who are often viewed as objects to be used and abused.
• Rape is a violent act of sexual intercourse conducted against a woman's will and consent. It reflects a power dynamic between men and women, reducing the woman to an object and stripping away her identity as an individual. In India, a rape occurs every two hours, with a significant number of victims being children under the age of 12. Paradoxically, in our society, rape victims are often stigmatized, with the blame placed on the woman as if she "invited" the assault.

Curative Measures

• Protection, support, and advice for victims are essential. This includes voluntary organization schemes, financial support, short-term accommodation, assistance in finding employment and childcare facilities, and immediate financial aid.
• Establishment of specialized courts to handle cases involving women, with judges and lawyers knowledgeable about women's issues. The scope of existing family courts should be expanded to include all types of problems faced by women, both domestic and non-domestic.
• Strengthening voluntary organizations that address individual women's issues with in-laws, police, courts, or other concerned parties. Organized groups of women are more effective in making their voices heard than individual women.
• Publicity for organizations providing free legal aid to women, so that those in need can access these services.
• Change in parents' attitudes to be more supportive of daughters who are victims of violence.