Approaches to the study of Political Theory-1 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Approaches in Political Theory

• Political theory is a field that encompasses various approaches and traditions, each with its own core premises and postulates, yet often informed by one another. This paper provides an overview of two major approaches in political theory: liberalism and conservatism.
• According to Gaus (2000), political theory involves systems of interpretation of political concepts and linking concepts like liberty and equality in new ways. He identifies three enduring political theories over the past two centuries: liberalism, socialism, and conservatism, highlighting the diversity within each approach. Alan Ryan's notion of 'liberalisms' emphasizes this diversity while acknowledging common foundations that distinguish each tradition.

Liberalism

• Within liberalism, there are competing value conceptions, but certain family resemblances form a strong foundation. Liberals have sought to define liberalism in contrast to conservatism and socialism. Gaus identifies a commitment to liberty as a common feature, while John Gray (1995) highlights the modern perception of person and society as central to liberalism.
• Gray outlines four ideas that characterize liberalism: individualism, egalitarianism, universalism, and meliorism. Liberalism is rooted in the moral primacy of the individual, equal moral worth, the moral unity of the human species, and the belief in the improvability of institutions and social arrangements. While Gray traces the origins of liberalism to thinkers like Hobbes and Spinoza, John Locke's Second Treatise on Civil Government is credited with crystallizing liberalism. Locke's ideas of freedom of association, private property, and limited government are central to the Lockean tradition.

Despite differing perceptions of liberalism, certain foundational aspects are common across various strands:

• Universalism: Liberalism articulates demands as universal rather than representing specific interest groups, emphasizing the humanity itself.
• Rationality, Autonomy, and Choice: These variables stem from Enlightenment philosophy, making liberal political theory non-teleological.
• Individualism: Individualism is a core feature, with the individual being prior to society. Different versions of individualism exist, such as abstract individualism and socially rooted individualism.
• Liberty: Liberty is fundamental to all liberals, although there is no unified position on its definition. Liberals typically advocate for a limited state to protect individuals from state arbitrariness.
• Rights and Democracy: Liberalism is tied to natural rights and democracy, with various interpretations of democracy emerging in recent times.

In summary, a liberal approach to political theory emphasizes liberty, rights, moral equality, and conditions for individual flourishing chosen freely by individuals, rather than predetermined by society or the state. This focus on individual autonomy and choice explains the liberal alliance with democracy and a free market, distinguishing it from other approaches like communitarianism.

Conservatism

• Conservatism, as a political theory, emphasizes the importance of tradition and social continuity in the governance of society. It is often viewed in contrast to liberalism, which prioritizes individual rights and freedoms. Central to conservatism is the belief that societal change should be gradual and rooted in established practices, rather than through radical reforms. This approach values the wisdom embedded in historical customs and institutions, arguing that they have evolved over time to meet the needs of society effectively.
• Conservatives often advocate for a limited role of government, focusing on maintaining order and stability rather than extensive intervention in personal lives or economic affairs. However, this does not mean an absence of government; rather, conservatives support a government that upholds laws, enforces contracts, and protects property rights while allowing individuals and communities the freedom to manage their own affairs.
• In the context of political theory, conservatism provides a counterpoint to liberal notions of progress and change, urging a reconsideration of the value of tradition and the potential risks of rapid transformation. It emphasizes the need for a stable societal framework within which individuals can pursue their interests, highlighting the interplay between individual freedom and communal responsibility.

Conservatism: Expalaination

Vincent explains the diversity within conservatism through various positions:

• Negative doctrine: After the French Revolution, conservatism was seen as a temporary phenomenon, exemplified by the development of the Tory Party in England.
• No political content: Conservatism was viewed as political pragmatism, absorbing the prevailing political and cultural ethos.
• Situational view: Conservatism was seen as a defensive posture of any institutionalized political doctrine, not attributed to class or ideology.
• Disposition: Some views, like Hugh Cecil's 'natural conservatism,' see conservatism as a human tendency to resist change.
• Ideology: Conservatism has also been viewed as a body of ideas with prescriptive content, as seen in Burke's works.

Conservatism can be understood through historical, chronological, and conceptual approaches:

• Historical nation-state view: Conservatism is seen as specific to historical contexts, with distinctive British, German, and French conservatisms.
• Chronological approach: Classifies conservatism by timelines of Conservative parties, marked by dominant personalities.
• Conceptual view: One strand denies different conservatisms, while another acknowledges manifold diversities within conservatism.

Despite its diversity, there are three central doctrines in conservatism:

• Traditionalism: Supports continuity in politics, maintaining existing institutions, and being suspicious of large and sudden changes.
• Skepticism about political knowledge: Conservatives are cautious about political knowledge and its implications.
• Organic conception of human beings and society: Emphasizes the organic relations between individuals and society.

Conservatives favor gradual change, distinguishing between change and reform. They advocate for reform, not change, which alters the essence of something. Traditions are retained not just because they are traditions, but due to societal familiarity with them. The concept of change/reform varies across societies, and conservatism can range from defensive actions to initiating changes to ensure the status quo. This leads to a skepticism about 'progress' and a view of conservatism as the 'politics of imperfection.'

• Unlike liberals, conservatives do not view humans as rational beings. They see humans as a mix of good and bad aspects, with limited control over changing human tendencies. Tradition mediates between individual autonomy and social authority in conservatism, where individuals participate in traditions that have endured through history. The decision of which traditions to retain or reject is based on their contribution to society.
• Conservatism is not a blind acceptance of tradition but a reflective defense of durable traditional arrangements. It opposes utopias and systemic proposals of change, valuing political wisdom embodied in experience and established institutions. Conservatives believe there is no universal human nature, and human nature changes over time and place. This view leads to the rejection of abstract theories and the belief that political arrangements should be based on history.
• The individual is understood within the organic whole of society, which is seen as a mutually interdependent relation of parts. Society is not an artifice or mechanism, and political order emerges from existing moral and political institutions. Except for the New Right within conservatism, political leadership and skills are seen as exclusive to a few with special status. Conservatives favor limited democracy and believe that government is needed to provide a framework of procedures and rules.

Finally, conservatism's opposition to theory is rooted in the belief that no social theory can capture society's complexities. It denounces metaphysical abstractions and favors empiricism, relying on time-tested traditions and experiences. This anti-philosophy stance is a departure from Enlightenment rationality and social engineering.