Approaches to the study of Political Theory-2 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Understanding Marxism in Political Theory

Marxism is a significant approach within the diverse realm of political theory. It is considered a form of “revolutionary socialism,” which emphasizes the need for radical change in society. Scholars have different perspectives on Marxism. For instance, Jon Elster highlights the “Marxist method,” which offers a unique way of studying social and political issues. Similarly, Gamble and others argue that Marxism connects theory with practice and has various currents and interdisciplinary influences.

Key Concepts in Marxism

Stages of Society

• Marx’s historical materialism outlines stages of society, including primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and communism. Critics argue that this view is teleological, suggesting a predetermined end—communism. 
• However, scholars like G.A. Cohen argue that Marx’s perspective is not about prophecy but about possibilities based on historical trends.

Base-Superstructure Framework

• The base-superstructure framework, developed by Marx, explains economic determinism and historical materialism. It posits that the economic structure of society influences the legal, political, and ideological superstructure. This framework emphasizes the role of the economy in shaping society and downplays individual agency.
• In summary, Marxism in political theory involves a complex interplay of historical materialism, economic determinism, and the base-superstructure framework. It offers a unique perspective on societal development and the role of economic factors in shaping history.

The Evolution of Marxism in Contemporary Thought

• In the early 1990s, with the decline of communist regimes, Marxism was widely considered "dead," as noted by scholars like Francis Fukuyama. However, this perspective has been challenged by various scholars who argue for the continued relevance of Marxist approaches, albeit in a transformed manner. This resurgence of Marxism in the post-Cold War era is evident in the works of Western Marxists, particularly through a paradigm known as "Analytical Marxism."
• Analytical Marxism seeks to reinterpret and reformulate Marx's ideas in light of contemporary analytic philosophy. Unlike traditional Marxism, which emphasized class politics and historical materialism while downplaying moral arguments, analytical Marxism aims to develop normative arguments to support Marxist insights.

Shift from 'Scientific' to Normative Marxism

• One significant shift highlighted by scholars like Will Kymlicka is the move away from 'scientific' Marxism, which focused on the inevitability of proletarian revolution, towards a normative political theory. In this new framework, Marxism had to justify why its alternatives, such as socialism or communism, were superior or better, rather than simply asserting their inevitability.
• Kymlicka explains this transformation by stating that the decline of 'scientific' Marxism has given rise to a more humanistic form of Marxism, reminiscent of thinkers like Georg Lukacs and Antonio Gramsci, who emphasized human agency and autonomy. This humanistic version of Marxism posits an ontology for human beings that is not solely determined by material relations of production.

Critiques and Distinctions within Analytical Marxism

• Despite its advancements, analytical Marxism has faced critiques, particularly regarding its proximity to liberalism. Scholars like Andrew Levine argue that the moral argument-based nature of analytical Marxism risks collapsing Marxism into liberalism. Similarly, analytical Marxist theorist John Roemer contends that the boundaries between analytical Marxism and left-liberal philosophy are often blurred.
• Roemer's perspective reflects a broader trend within new Marxism, which rejects economism, determinism, and structuralism. This evolution signifies a departure from traditional Marxist frameworks while retaining key concepts like exploitation.

In summary, the evolution of Marxism in contemporary thought reflects a complex interplay between historical materialism, moral arguments, and the critique of liberalism. Analytical Marxism represents a significant shift in how Marxist ideas are understood and applied in today's socio-political landscape.

Understanding Different Perspectives Within Marxism

David Mars warns against the idea that all Marxists share a strict focus on economic factors. He highlights thinkers like Kautsky,Lukacs, and especially Antonio Gramsci, who stress the importance of ideas and cultural dominance (hegemony) in maintaining capitalism and presenting obstacles to revolution, rather than just economic aspects.

Similarly,Colin Hay refers to Poulantzas' concept of 'relative autonomy' as an example of a non-economic viewpoint within Marxist state theory.

Non-Economic Aspects in Marxist Theory

• Intentions, desires, and beliefs are crucial components of Marxist methodology, as pointed out by Elster and Singer. Singer argues that the concept of alienation in Marx's Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts is part of the materialist conception of history. He suggests that alienation and historical materialism are not separate stages in Marxism.
• For example, Singer believes that the Eighteenth Brumaire itself shows the importance of ideas and individual characters in shaping history, rather than just focusing on economic factors.
• Moreover, the Communist Manifesto frames history as the history of class struggle, rather than merely the history of economic forces. Singer concludes that Marx views the productive forces of history as causing alienation among individuals, linking the materialist conception of history and the theory of alienation as integral to the same theory.

Base-Superstructure Model and Class Struggle

• Wood also points out deviations from the base-superstructure model in texts like the Theses on Feuerbach and the Communist Manifesto, highlighting the significance of practical-critical activity and class consciousness.
• Robert Brennan, another analytical Marxist, argues that class struggle, rather than the mode of production, is the primary driver of change in Marxism.

Marxism as a Realist Epistemology

• David Mars describes Marxism as a realist epistemology, emphasizing its approach to political theory. He contends that Marxism is not relativist because it posits that knowledge about the social world exists independently of our understanding of it, aligning with a positivist view of knowledge.
• However, unlike positivism, Marxism recognizes that not all relationships between social phenomena can be directly observed. Nonetheless, similar to positivists, Marxism acknowledges a logic of necessity and causality, positioning it close to a scientific framework.
• The distinctive contribution of Marxism lies not only in interpreting and revealing causal explanations but also in bringing about change. Mars thus depicts Marxism fundamentally as “a humanity-centered and activist philosophy.”

Structure and Agency in Marxism

• Marxism’s approach to structure and agency, or the balance between class relations and individualism, is particularly noteworthy. Elster emphasizes 'methodological collectivism' as a key aspect of Marxist methodology, prioritizing group entities over individuals in the order of explanation.
• At the same time, an ethical individualism is evident in Marx’s German Ideology and the theory of alienation, where Marx argues that communism is superior because it has the potential to fully realize human beings.
• In the 1990s, a more autonomy-focused Marxism merged with postmodernism, giving rise to a new form of post-Marxism where concepts like class are viewed as 'social imaginaries' rather than concrete empirical realities.