Indian Feudalism in Early Medieval Period | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The early medieval period in India was marked by significant changes and developments in various aspects of society, economy, polity, and agriculture.
• One of the most noteworthy transformations during this time was the expansion of the land grants system, which Marxist historians often cite to support the theory of 'Indian Feudalism.'

Feudalism:

• Feudalism involves the establishment of superior rights over land, which serves as the basis for appropriating a portion of the produce and acquiring various other rights related to the land and its inhabitants.
• The superior rights granted to beneficiaries create a hierarchy, bestowing the status of overlord upon them and establishing a subordinate status for the peasantry.
• This dynamic leads to the development of a typical agrarian structure characterized by an overlord-subordinate relationship.

Features

System based on land and land rights.

• Superior rights of feudal lords were the basis for appropriating revenue.
• Feudal lords held proprietary rights and hereditary rights on land.
• Feudal lords had administrative, judicial, military, and fiscal powers.
• Rise of Jayaskandhavaras, or victory army camps, which served as politico-military centers.
• Feudal titles such as Thakur, Raja, Rao, and Rauts were common among lords.
• Practice of sub-infeudation, where lands were granted with conditions.
• Hierarchical landed intermediaries included vassals, state officers, and other secular assignees with military obligations and feudal titles.
• These intermediaries often sub-infeudated land to cultivate it, leading to the growth of various strata of intermediaries.
• Indian feudalism was characterized by unequal distribution of land and its produce.
• Vishti, or forced labor, was prevalent, with the right to extract it held by Brahmanas and other land grantees.
• Initially a prerogative of the King or state, the right to forced labor was transferred to grantees, petty officials, and village authorities.
• In Chola inscriptions, there are numerous references to forced labor.
• Peasants and artisans were also subject to vishti, leading to a form of serfdom where agricultural laborers became semi-serfs.
• Rights of peasants over land declined as rulers and intermediaries claimed greater rights.
• Many peasants were reduced to tenants facing eviction threats, and some became ardhikas, or sharecroppers.

Economic Implications of Feudalism

New Land Distribution and Agrarian Structure:

• Emergence of a new land distribution system with a different class of landlords and a distinct hierarchy in land ownership.
• Development of a new agrarian structure and relations, indicating a shift in how land and agricultural responsibilities are organized.
• Transition to a land-based economy with agriculture becoming the dominant feature of the economy.
• Growth of the village or rural economy with agriculture at its core, reflecting a shift towards rural self-sufficiency.
• Rise of a closed economy where self-sufficiency is crucial, as noted by R.S. Sharma, indicating a move towards feudalism.
• Decline of urban centers and urban economies, with a shift in focus towards rural and agrarian activities.

Political Implications of Feudalism:

• The political structure became rooted in land ownership, with power and authority derived from land and land relationships.
• A hierarchy of feudal lords emerged, creating a structured pyramid of authority with the king at the top and peasants at the base.
• Bureaucracy lost its relevance as the feudal system took precedence.
• The standing army was gradually replaced by a feudal army, reflecting the changing nature of military organization.
• This period also saw a trend of political decentralization, with power becoming more localized and based on land-vassal relationships.

Social implications of Feudalism

Land and Land Structure: A New Basis for Social Hierarchy:

• Receiving a land grant along with associated rights and privileges elevated individuals within the political hierarchy.
• This period saw the emergence of a closed society where social relations became increasingly restricted.
• Contemporary texts reference terms such as Gramdharam,Gramchara, and Asthanachar, reflecting the concept of Feudal localism.
• Legal texts from this era indicate that individuals undertaking sea voyages would lose their caste status, and that marriages should not occur between those living at great distances.
• The decline in trade and crafts contributed to the diminishing status of the Vaisyas, with evidence suggesting a blurring of distinctions between Vaisyas and Shudras.
• Historical observations by Al-Beruni support this notion, as he noted that both groups faced punishment for reciting the Vedas.
• Many Shudras transitioned to agriculture, resulting in an elevation of their social status.

Rise of the Kayastha Caste:

• The expansion of the land grant system led to the rise of the Kayastha caste, originating from individuals involved in the profession of Scribes.
• Feudal localism played a crucial role in the proliferation of caste during the early medieval period, making varna distinctions less significant.
• The Brahmavaivarta Purana introduced the concept of deshabheda, emphasizing regional differences in caste.
• No varna remained homogenous; fragmentation occurred due to territorial affiliations,gotra purity, and specific crafts,professions, or vocations.
• Peasantisation of tribes resulted from the expansion of land grants, with tribes shifting to agriculture from earlier occupations.
• Feudalism also contributed to the growth of slavery and the emergence of diverse languages and art forms.

The Rise of the Feudalism in India

• Background: Feudalism in ancient India, especially during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, was influenced by earlier developments.
• System of Land-Grant: Originating under the Satavahana dynasty around 100 BC in the Maharashtra region, this system expanded significantly during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods.
• Decline of Urban Economy: Notable decline began around the 4th or 5th century AD.
• Power Fragmentation: The period following the Gupta era saw the rise of numerous small kingdoms, indicating a fragmentation of power.

Decline of the Feudalism in India

• Feudalism declined due to various causes. It was based on land tenure paid for by governmental work, so any change in this system tended to displace feudalism.
• The foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 brought political centralization, which was a significant blow to the feudal system.
• The Delhi Sultanate's Iqta system was a tool of centralization as it did not grant land rights or hereditary claims.
• Muhammad Habib believed that the economic changes under the Delhi Sultanate created a superior organization, leading to what he called an ‘Urban Revolution’ and ‘Rural Revolution’.
• D.D. Kosambi acknowledged that the Islamic raiders disrupted old customs but viewed the changes as intensifications of existing Indian feudalism.
• The growth of a cash economy and the revival of trade after the 10th century created unfavorable conditions for feudalism.
• During A.D. 900-1300, the mercantile community became prominent, with many merchants involved in trade and moneylending.
• Nikshepa-vanika in western India specialized in banking or moneylending, as mentioned in texts like Lekhapaddhati.
• Regional merchant groups emerged, especially in Western India, with names like Oswal,Palivalas,Shrimali, and Modha. Collectively known as Marwaris.
• In South India, regional markets called nagaram became centers of exchange, leading to the formation of merchant guilds like Ayyavole and Manigraman.
• The Turks introduced tax collection, distribution, and coinage practices, which were initially superimposed on existing systems. Changes were gradually made by different Sultans until the 15th century.
• Thus, feudalism gradually collapsed as a large phenomenon.