Geographical Factors | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Prehistory deals with the time period for which there are no written records, as history relies on written documents. Prehistoric sites are different from historical sites in various ways. They are usually not characterized by prominent remains of human habitation but are mainly composed of fossils of humans, plants, and animals. These sites are often found on the slopes of plateaus and mountains or along the banks of rivers with terraces, containing a variety of fauna and flora. Numerous stone tools from the Stone Age have been discovered at these locations. The remains of tools, plants, animals, and humans from the pre-ice age provide insights into the climatic conditions that existed during that time.

Proto-history

Geographical Factors

• Geographical factors play a significant role in shaping human settlement and subsistence patterns during prehistoric times.
• Geographical determinism is the theory that human habitats and the characteristics of a particular culture are influenced by geographical conditions. This theory encompasses all environmental and geographical factors and their impact on the socio-economic and political aspects of a society.
• Physical features and environmental conditions that may seem unfavorable at one time can prove to be beneficial later on.

Geographical Factors in the Paleolithic Age

• The Paleolithic age witnessed the evolution of Homo sapiens.
• Ethnographic studies indicate that many hunting-gathering groups do not fully exploit the natural resource potential of their areas. They intentionally practice sensible restraint in their exploitation of the environment to conserve its resources.
• Most Paleolithic sites are distributed throughout India, except for the Gangetic basin and the Kerala coast, due to the presence of rocky hills and caves. For example, sites like the Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh.
• During this age, humans were primarily food hunters and gatherers because the Pleistocene era did not support abundant growth of fauna and flora. They lived in small bands consisting of close-knit families and led a nomadic lifestyle.
• Paleolithic sites are densely concentrated in central India and the southern part of the Eastern Ghats. This region received adequate rainfall, had perennial rivers, a rich vegetation cover, and abundant wild plant and animal food resources.
• Paleolithic tools and culture are categorized into three phases based on the nature of stone tools made by humans and changes in climate and environment.
• The trend towards smaller tools during the Upper Paleolithic phase likely resulted from adaptations to environmental changes.
• Factory sites for tool production are typically located near sources of raw materials.
• In the Middle Paleolithic era, compared to the Lower Paleolithic era, the distribution of sites is sparser. This is because the Middle Paleolithic culture developed during the Upper Pleistocene, a period marked by intense cold and glaciation in northern latitudes. During this time, areas bordering glaciated regions experienced strong aridity.
• Changes in the Upper Paleolithic environment impacted the distribution and ways of living for humans. Some of these changes included:
• Extremely cold and arid conditions in high-altitude and northern latitudes.
• Extensive desert formation in northwestern India.
• Disruption of the drainage pattern in western India, with river courses shifting westward.
• Thinning vegetation cover across much of the country during this period.
• Development of quartz and carbonate dunes in coastal areas of southeastern Tamil Nadu, Saurashtra, and Kutch due to lowering sea levels.
• During the terminal Pleistocene, southwesterly monsoons weakened, and sea levels decreased significantly.
• In northern India, the Upper Paleolithic period in Kashmir coincided with the onset of a milder climate.
• In the Thar region, there are fewer Upper Paleolithic sites compared to the preceding phase due to increasing aridity.
• Upper Paleolithic settlements show a distinct trend of being associated with permanent water sources. The use of grinding stones suggests processing of plant foods such as wild rice.
• Despite the harsh and arid climate, faunal fossils indicate the presence of grasslands. The human population faced limited food resources, which accounts for the scarcity of Upper Paleolithic sites in arid and semi-arid regions.
• One significant discovery is the presence of ostrich egg shells at over 40 sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. This indicates that ostriches, birds adapted to arid climates, were widely distributed in western India during the later part of the Upper Pleistocene.

Geographical Factors in Mesolithic Age

With the beginning of the Holocene Age, Mesolithic culture emerged as ice caps melted, leading to the formation of rivers due to global warming. The transition from the Pleistocene geological era to the Holocene, which occurred around 10,000 years ago, brought about significant environmental changes.

• During this period, there was a rise in temperature, and the climate became warm and dry, with some areas experiencing increased humidity. For example, soil samples from Birbhanpur in West Bengal indicate a trend towards greater aridity, while salt lake sediments and pollen grains from Didwana in Rajasthan suggest higher rainfall during this time.
• The climatic shifts had a profound impact on human life, causing changes in fauna and flora. The expansion of flora and fauna, driven by increased rainfall, provided new resources for humans, prompting them to migrate to new areas. The favorable climate, improved rainfall, warm atmosphere, and enhanced food security contributed to a reduction in nomadic lifestyles, leading to more seasonally sedentary settlements. This period was characterized by a rise in population.
• As the climate became more conducive, Mesolithic humans began domesticating animals, and a partially settled lifestyle was facilitated by advanced technology, particularly microlith tools. Although the core economy of this period remained based on hunting and gathering, there was a notable shift in the types of animals hunted, moving from large game to smaller game, fishing, and fowling.
• The technology used for tool production also evolved, with the introduction of very small tools known as microliths. This change in toolkits was likely a response to environmental factors. These material and ecological transformations are also evident in rock paintings from the period.
• One of the key features of the Indian Mesolithic phase was the expansion of settlements into new ecological niches. This expansion is generally attributed to population growth resulting from more favorable environmental conditions and technological innovations.

Despite the shifts in the types of animals present, many species continued to thrive during the Mesolithic tradition. However, certain animals, such as wild sheep, wild goats, donkeys, elephants, bison, foxes, hippos, sambars, chinkaras, hares, porcupines, lizards, rats, fowls, and tortoises, were absent from sites associated with the Mesolithic tradition. The appearance and disappearance of these animals must be understood in the context of changing climatic and environmental conditions.

Mesolithic People’s Environment

Mesolithic people lived in a variety of environments, including coastal areas, rock shelters, flat hilltops, river valleys, lake sides, sand dunes, and alluvial plains.

• Sand Dunes: In regions like Gujarat and Marwar, numerous sand dunes of different sizes are found on the alluvial plain. Some of these dunes enclose shallow lakes or ponds, which served as excellent sources of aquatic creatures. The dunes themselves were covered with thorny scrub bushes, providing habitat for various animals. Consequently, the Mesolithic inhabitants of these sandy dunes faced little difficulty in gathering their food.
• Rock Shelters: The Vindhya, Satpura, and Kaimur hills in Central India are rich in caves and rock shelters, making them attractive to Mesolithic people. The ample rainfall in Central India supported thick deciduous forests on these hills, offering a diverse range of plants and animals. Some rock shelters in this region were occupied as early as the Acheulean times.
• Alluvial Plains: Since the early Palaeolithic period, humans have preferred to live along riverbanks due to the availability of water and game. Numerous Mesolithic sites have been discovered in alluvial plains. For instance, the Birbhanpur site is located on the Damodar alluvial plain in West Bengal.
• Rocky Plains: Many microlithic sites are found on the Deccan Plateau, with some located on hilltops and others on flat rocky soil. These occupations were likely seasonal or of short duration, especially in areas lacking nearby rivers.
• Lake Shores: A few Mesolithic settlements are situated around the shores of lakes, particularly in the Gangetic Valley, such as in the districts of Allahabad and Pratapgarh. The settlers likely obtained food from the lake and the dense primeval forest surrounding the fertile alluvial land.
• Coastal Environments: Numerous microlithic sites have been uncovered along coastlines, such as in Salsette Island and the teri dune in District Tirunelveli. Inhabitants of these areas relied on marine resources for sustenance.
• During the Mesolithic period, the production of micro-blades through the pressure technique was common, along with beautifully fluted cylindrical or conical cores and thin, parallel-sided blades found at various sites.

Geographical Factors in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Ages

During the Holocene period, many regions around the world experienced a shift towards a milder, warmer, and wetter climate. These climatic changes likely contributed to the expansion of natural habitats suitable for wild cereals, which had the potential for domestication. As a result, village settlements began to emerge, marking a transition to a settled lifestyle for Neolithic people.
The discovery of pit dwellings in Burzahom, Kashmir, provides evidence of the extreme cold conditions that prevailed in the Kashmir Valley during this time. Neolithic sites typically show evidence of rice, wheat, and barley cultivation through slash-and-burn methods.

• V. Gordon Childe: Gordon Childe proposed that environmental changes at the end of the Pleistocene played a crucial role in the shift towards food production. He suggested that around 10,000 years ago, parts of West Asia experienced a drier climate due to a northward shift in summer rains. This drying trend led to a concentration of people, plants, and animals near water sources like rivers and oases. This close proximity eventually fostered new dependencies among humans, plants, and animals, paving the way for domestication.
• Lewis R. Binford: Binford, in the context of agricultural origins, highlighted the impact of external demographic stress. He argued that the rise in sea levels at the end of the Pleistocene forced coastal populations to migrate inland. This migration disrupted the balance between people and food in inland areas, prompting the search for new strategies to enhance food supplies.
• South Indian Neolithic Sites: Evidence of agriculture in South Indian Neolithic sites is limited. Occasional finds of charred grain and indirect evidence of grinding stones suggest some agricultural activity, but cattle rearing appeared to be more dominant. The argument has been made that the terrain, soil, and dry climate of the region rendered it unsuitable for extensive agriculture.
• Health and Nutrition: Studies examining human bones for nutrition and disease indicate that hunter-gatherers had a high-protein diet that was more varied, balanced, and healthy compared to early farmers. Farmers’ diets tended to be higher in carbohydrates, focusing on cereals or root crops. Additionally, sedentary populations were more susceptible to infectious diseases and epidemics than nomadic groups, leading to a higher incidence of disease reflected in the bones of early farming communities.
• Dental Health: In the early levels of Chalcolithic culture, there was a low rate of dental cavities, possibly due to high fluoride levels in the available drinking water. The Chalcolithic period is marked by the use of copper-stone tools and the existence of large village settlements. A variety of food crops were cultivated, and the domestication of animals increased. Pastoral farming gained greater significance, and pottery with delicate artistic designs was produced.

Influence of Geographical Factors

• The rise and fall of human habitats over time have been largely influenced by geographical factors. While nature imposes certain limits, human experience and technology have allowed for the overcoming of these challenges.
• Note: Further chapters on Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic cultures provide more detailed examples of geographical factors.