Indus Valley Civilisation: Origin | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Origin of Indus Valley Civilization

The origin of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) has been a topic of intense debate among historians. John Marshall suggested that the Indus civilization must have had a long antecedent history on the soil of India. M. R. Mughal conducted the first comprehensive analysis of evidence from pre-Harappan sites in the greater Indus Valley and North Baluchistan, comparing evidence such as pottery, stone tools, metal artifacts, and architecture from pre-Harappan and mature Harappan levels to explore the relationship between the two stages.

View I: Aryan Theory

• Represented by historians like S.R. Roy, T.R. Ramachandran, and K.V. Shastri, this theory posits that the IVC was developed by Aryans, who are associated with Vedic culture. However, this theory is refuted due to the significant contrasts between the IVC and Vedic culture.

View II: Diffusionist Theory/Migration Theory/Colonization Theory/Foreign Origin Theory

• Historians like Mortimer Wheeler, D.H. Gordon, and E.J.H. Mackay represent this view. In a diffusionist argument, the focus is on identifying the point of origin where a change first occurred, from which it spread to other areas. This process of diffusion can result from migration, contact (such as trade or invasion), or a cultural stimulus.
• Proponents of this theory argue that people from outside, such as those from Mesopotamia or Sumeria, came and developed the IVC. Wheeler suggested that there was a migration of ideas rather than people from these regions. He believed that the idea of civilization was prevalent in West Asia during the 3rd millennium BCE, and the founders of the Harappan civilization had a model of civilization before them.

Criticism

Differences include:

• Scripts: The script of Mesopotamia has been deciphered, while that of the IVC remains unread.
• Town Planning: The grid pattern seen in IVC was absent in Mesopotamia.
• Canal System: The large-scale canal system of Mesopotamia was not present in the IVC.
• Use of Bronze: There was a greater use of bronze in Mesopotamia.
• Seals: Differences in the shape and size of seals.
• Religious Structures: Religious structures present in Mesopotamia were absent in the IVC.

View III: Indigenous Origin Theory/Cultural Evolution Theory

• Historians like A. Ghosh, M.R. Mughal, and Fairservis represent this theory. According to this perspective, the IVC had precedence, with settled farming cultures gradually evolving into civilization. The origins of the Harappan Civilization can be traced to settled farming communities in Baluchistan during the 7th millennium BCE, with pre-Harappan or early Harappan phases serving as the immediate precursor.
• Pre-Harappan sites such as Mehergarh and Kili Gul Muhammad featured fewer settlements, mud houses, and the cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, and cotton.
• A. Ghosh was the first archaeologist to identify similarities between pre-Harappan and mature Harappan cultures, focusing on the pre-Harappan Sothi culture of Rajasthan. He argued that the similarities between Sothi pottery and Harappan pottery indicated a proto-Harappan status for the Sothi culture.

Limitations of the Hypothesis

• The hypothesis has a limitation in that it relied solely on pottery comparison and did not take into account other material traits.
• Ghosh's focus on ceramic similarities overlooked the differences between Sothi and Harappan cultures.
• This led to an overemphasis on the Sothi element in explaining the emergence of the Harappan civilization.
• Despite this limitation, the theory is considered the most acceptable among historians.

Limitations of the Early Harappan and Mature Harappan Transition

• There are several mature Harappan sites, such as Lothal, Desalpur, Chanhudaro, Mitathal, Alamgirpur, and Ropar, where no early Harappan level is present.
• Conversely, there are early Harappan sites in the Potwar plateau that lack mature Harappan levels.
• Additionally, there are no early Harappan sites in the active Indus plain.
• At sites where both early Harappan and mature Harappan levels are present, the transition between the two is not always smooth.
• For instance, at Kot Diji and Gumla, a burnt deposit between the two levels indicates a major fire.
• Evidence of burning has also been found at Amri and Nausharo.
• At Kalibangan, a break in occupation may have been caused by an earthquake.

Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan Phase

• The pre-Harappan phase is characterized by large fortified settlements, a high level of expertise in specialized crafts like stone working, metal crafting, and bead making, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks.
• The range of raw materials used by the pre-Harappans was similar to that of the mature Harappan phase, except for the absence of jade in the early Harappan context.
• However, large cities and increased levels of craft specialization were lacking during this phase.
• Mughal argued that the ‘pre-Harappan’ phase represented the early, formative phase of Harappan culture and suggested replacing the term ‘pre-Harappan’ with ‘early Harappan’.
• Early Harappan levels have been identified at numerous sites, including Balakot, Nal, Amri, Kot Diji, Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Gumla, Rehman Dheri, Sarai Khola, Lewan, Tarakai Qila, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Bhirrana, Dholavira, Padri, and Kuntasi.
• In the early Harappan phase, some features of the mature Harappan culture were already present, indicating a gradual transition from various regional traditions towards a level of cultural uniformity across regions, a process known as ‘cultural convergence’.
• Seals discovered at Kunal and Nausharo may be associated with traders or elite groups.
• The finding of hoards of jewelry at Kunal, including a silver piece, suggests a significant concentration of wealth with potential political implications.
• The discovery of symbols resembling Harappan writing at early Harappan levels in sites such as Padri(Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Dholavira (Kutch), and Harappa (west Punjab) indicates that the roots of the Harappan script can be traced back to this phase.
• Another notable aspect is the emergence of the ‘horned deity’ at various locations, as evidenced by his depiction on jars found at Kot Diji and early Harappan Rehman Dheri, and his figure incised on a terracotta cake at Kalibangan.
• This suggests that the process of ‘cultural convergence’ was also influential in the religious and symbolic domains.

Proto-Urban Early Harappan Phase to Mature Harappan Phase

The transition from the proto-urban Early Harappan phase to the fully developed city life of the Mature Harappan phase was influenced by several key factors:

• Trade with Mesopotamia: While trade with Mesopotamia has been suggested as a contributing factor, its importance has been somewhat exaggerated, even during the Mature Harappan phase.
• Craft Specialization: According to archaeologist Chakrabarti, the transition may have been catalyzed by an increasing level of craft specialization, particularly driven by advancements in copper metallurgy in Rajasthan.
• Agricultural Growth: Chakrabarti also points to agricultural growth, potentially based on an organized irrigation system, as a crucial factor for the spread of settlements in the active floodplain of the Indus. However, direct evidence for this is lacking.
• Political and Social Changes: The transition might have been influenced by the emergence of new political leadership, significant changes in social organization, or the introduction of new ideologies. However, such changes are challenging to discern from archaeological data.
• Environmental Factors: Favorable environmental conditions, such as fertile plains, adequate rainfall, and the availability of water, played a role in the transition.
• Technological Advancements: Growth in technology and know-how contributed to the development of the Harappan civilization.
• Population Growth: The gradual buildup of population and its rate of increase were significant factors in the transition.
• Settlement Expansion: The expansion of settlements was a crucial aspect of the transition.
• Regional Cultural Patterns: The emergence of regional cultural patterns, such as the Kulli culture, Nal culture, and Kot Diji culture, contributed to the transition.
• Integration and Unification: The processes of integration and unification among different communities and regions played a vital role in the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.