Major ideas of Enlightenment: Kant | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The German Enlightenment, also known as the Aufklärung, was a significant intellectual movement in 18th-century Germany. It emerged despite various challenges, such as political fragmentation and a lack of robust intellectual discourse compared to France. Influenced by figures like Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and later thinkers, the German Enlightenment explored ideas of reason, religion, and metaphysics, paving the way for future philosophical developments.

Hurdles to the German Enlightenment

• Germany's political and social landscape in the 18th century, marked by numerous small states under despotic rule, hindered the progress of Enlightenment ideas. The lack of a significant increase in German newspapers over the past 150 years and the dominance of Latin as the literary language impeded the spread of Enlightenment literature.
• Unlike France, which had a vibrant intellectual scene and a growing literate middle class, Germany lacked a clear divide between the middle class and aristocracy. There was also less public discontent with religion. This difference led many German intellectuals to reject the French emphasis on empiricism, questioning the applicability of simple laws to human society.
• Germany's literary landscape was fragmented, with no unified style and diverse regional influences.

The Aufklarung

• Despite these challenges, the German Enlightenment, or Aufklärung, began to take shape under the influence of King Frederick the Great of Prussia, who introduced Enlightenment ideas from other parts of Europe.
• However, the German Enlightenment diverged from the English and French movements in significant ways.
• Unlike in other countries, religion was not subjected to intense scrutiny in Germany. The Aufklärung maintained a somewhat mystical perspective, with prominent German writers advocating for a blend of reason and religion.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

• Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) was a key figure in the German Enlightenment.
• He was a mathematician who, like Isaac Newton, independently developed calculus around the same time. Although there was a dispute between them over credit for the invention of calculus, some aspects of calculus are exclusively attributed to Leibniz.
• In the realm of metaphysics, Leibniz introduced the concept of monads, which he described as "spiritual atoms" that shape our perception of the universe but do not have physical dimensions.
• Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers in France and England, Leibniz was deeply religious and viewed monads as creations of a perfect God.
• His strong religious beliefs and respect for tradition influenced his conservative approach to his work and his writings, setting the stage for the mystical tendencies seen in later German Enlightenment thought.
• Despite his conservative stance, Leibniz laid important groundwork for future Enlightenment scholars. His unique metaphysical ideas, while seemingly strange, brought attention to the field of metaphysics and invited both further exploration and criticism from later philosophers like David Hume and Immanuel Kant.
• Although Hume and Kant disagreed with Leibniz, his work provided them with a foundation for their own philosophical advancements.

Goethe

• Goethe's Influence: Despite being less known for his philosophy, Goethe (1749–1832) emerged as Germany's finest writer from the Enlightenment era.
• The Sorrows of Young Werther: Goethe's novel, published in 1774, tells the story of a young boy who falls in love with an unattainable girl and ultimately takes his own life out of despair. This work had a profound impact on German youth and is a key reason why Goethe is considered a prominent figure in the Sturm und Drang movement.
• Sturm und Drang Movement: This movement, lasting from the 1760s to 1780s, was characterized by young German intellectuals rebelling against optimism and reason, inspired by Rousseau's emphasis on emotion. Goethe's work resonated deeply during this period.
• Focus on Literature: Goethe was not deeply concerned with the politics of his time, which saw significant governmental changes in Germany. Instead, he dedicated himself to writing, scholarship, and scientific inquiries.
• Impact of Werther: The influence of The Sorrows of Young Werther was so strong that German youth began to dress like the character Werther and, tragically, some even took their own lives.
• Faust: In this monumental work, Goethe delves into satire and social commentary while maintaining his focus on intimate and emotional themes.
• Transition to Romanticism: Similar to Rousseau's works in France, Goethe's writings emphasized emotions and innate human feelings, marking the end of the German Enlightenment and paving the way for the burgeoning Romantic movement across Europe.

Results of the German Enlightenment

• The brief Sturm und Drang movement, marked by its pessimism and anarchism, revealed a one-sidedness in German thought but was eventually overshadowed by contrasting forces.
• A strong nationalistic voice during the German Enlightenment played a crucial role in culturally unifying Germany.
• Political unity progressed alongside cultural unity, with consolidations of laws and districts, increased press freedoms, and more humane judicial treatments.
• These developments set the stage for Germany's eventual unification as a nation in 1871.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

• Kant was a German philosopher and a significant figure in the Enlightenment.
• His first major work, the Critique of Pure Reason(1781), aimed to define the limits of pure reason.
• This work, known as Kant's "First Critique," was followed by the Critique of Practical Reason(1788) and the Critique of Judgment(1790).
• Kant redefined reason as conscience or intuition, reacting against the rationalism dominant during the Enlightenment.
• This reaction against rationalism is termed romanticism, which emphasized emotions over reason.
• Kant was part of the school of skepticism, questioning humanity's ability to accurately perceive the world.
• His skepticism reflected the German Enlightenment's distrust of empiricism, contrasting with the Enlightenment's belief in man's capacity to discern nature's laws through reason.
• The Critique of Pure Reason argues that individuals are born with their own ideas and perceptions, making it impossible to distinguish between what is "real" and what is merely a perception.
• Kant's stance that only a few universal truths are valid challenged the French Enlightenment's focus on rationalism and empiricism.
• In the Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals(1785), Kant sought to define morality, asserting that moral actions must be based on reason.
• He argued that actions driven by convenience or obedience are not moral, regardless of the outcome.
• Instead, the morality of an action hinges on the motivation behind it.
• Kant introduced the concept of categorical imperative, which serves as the supreme principle of morality.
• Categorical imperative represents a universal and unconditional moral duty that applies to all individuals in all circumstances.
• Kant's principle encourages individuals to act in a manner that could be universally adopted as a law by all others in similar situations.

Kant's Concept of Enlightenment

Kant's essay "What is Enlightenment?" delves into his perspective on the Enlightenment era, emphasizing the importance of individual thought and the courage to question established norms. He defines enlightenment as the process of freeing oneself from self-imposed ignorance and the ability to think independently without external guidance.

What is Enlightenment?

• Enlightenment, according to Kant, is the liberation of individuals from their self-imposed tutelage, which he defines as immaturity.
• Immaturity is the inability to use one's understanding without the guidance of others.
• Kant believes that this immaturity is self-imposed, stemming not from a lack of understanding but from a lack of resolve and courage to think independently.
• Enlightenment represents a coming of age for humanity, both individually and collectively, where people begin to think for themselves.
• It is the emancipation of human consciousness from ignorance and error, free from the constraints of past generations' thoughts.
• An enlightened individual has the courage to think and act without external guidance.
• Kant emphasizes that true enlightenment involves questioning and criticizing established institutions, such as government and religion.

Motto of Enlightenment

• The motto of enlightenment, according to Kant, is 'Sapere Aude' or 'dare to know,' which encourages individuals to have the courage to use their own understanding.

Revolution cannot bring Enlightenment

• While a revolution may be able to topple oppressive regimes, it cannot fundamentally change the way people think.
• New prejudices will emerge, replacing old ones, and continue to control the masses.

Obstacles in Enlightenment

• Laziness and cowardice are major reasons why many individuals choose to remain in a state of immaturity throughout their lives.
• People often prefer to follow societal institutions, such as the Church and Monarchy, rather than striving for autonomy.
• Breaking free from this immature existence is challenging because most individuals are uncomfortable with independent thinking and have not developed their intellectual capacity.
• Individuals must push beyond the limitations imposed by society, overcoming the dangers of laziness, cowardice, and the comfort of letting others think for them.
• Kant argues that it is easy to be immature when one has external sources, like books, pastors, and doctors, to dictate understanding, conscience, and diet.
• The guardians who oversee individuals have made the journey to maturity seem perilous and arduous.
• As a result, it is difficult for individuals to escape the immaturity that has become second nature.
• People have grown accustomed to this state and, for now, are incapable of using their own understanding because they have never been given the chance to do so.
• Rules and formulas keep individuals in a state of permanent immaturity.
• When the public is granted freedom, enlightenment becomes nearly unavoidable.
• However, there are constant reminders to not argue and to simply follow orders, such as drilling, paying taxes, or believing without question.

Public and Private Use of Reason

Restrictions on freedom can either hinder or advance enlightenment. The public use of reason is essential for enlightenment, while the private use of reason may be restricted without hindering progress.

Public Use of Reason

• The public use of one’s reason must always be free and is crucial for bringing about enlightenment among mankind.
• It involves the use of reason by scholars before the entire literate world.

Private Use of Reason

• The private use of reason may be narrowly restricted in certain civic posts or offices without hindering the progress of enlightenment.
• An example of private use of reason is a citizen fulfilling their duty in a civic position, such as an officer following orders.

Examples of Public and Private Use of Reason

• A citizen cannot refuse to pay taxes, but they can publicly express their thoughts on the fairness of those taxes as a scholar.
• A pastor must instruct their congregation according to church guidelines, but as a scholar, they can share their thoughts on improving church practices.

Possibility of Unalterable Law

• Kant argues that it is impossible for a church assembly to create unalterable laws to ensure constant guardianship over people.
• Such laws, aimed at preventing further enlightenment, are null and void, even if ratified by authorities.
• One generation cannot bind future generations in a way that hinders their progress and enlightenment.
• Subsequent generations are justified in dismissing such agreements as unauthorized.
• It is forbidden for people to form religious organizations with unchallengeable laws, as this would hinder future progress.
• A person cannot impose such laws on themselves or future generations, as it violates divine rights.
• A monarch cannot impose laws on the people that they cannot decree for themselves, as his authority comes from the collective will of the people.

Age of Enlightenment” vs “Enlightened Age

• Kant distinguished between living in an “Age of Enlightenment” and an “Enlightened Age.” He believed that while society was currently in an age that promoted enlightenment, it had not yet achieved a state where individuals could use their own reason without external guidance.
• Kant argued that people were still dependent on external authorities for understanding, particularly in matters of religion. However, he saw progress being made towards greater individual autonomy and the diminishing of obstacles to general enlightenment.
• Kant acknowledged figures like Voltaire as part of the Age of Enlightenment, but pointed out that the age itself was not truly enlightened. This lack of full enlightenment explained why reformers faced challenges in achieving their societal goals.
• Voltaire, despite being a product of the Enlightenment era, felt disheartened by the state of society at the time of his death in 1778. Kant, writing six years later, recognized Voltaire's contributions but also noted the ongoing struggle for true enlightenment.
• Kant believed that the ideal ruler would encourage free thinking and allow citizens to use their own reason in matters of conscience. Such rulers would be praiseworthy and contribute to an enlightened society.
• He argued that an enlightened ruler, equipped with rational thoughts and ideals, would feel secure enough to permit public discourse and criticism of existing laws, fostering a more enlightened government and society.
• Kant emphasized the importance of obeying laws while also questioning them. He believed that questioning existing norms was essential for generating new ideas and improving society as a whole.

Ruler’s Duty

• Kant believed that it would be ideal if rulers and monarchs to allow its citizens to engage in free thinking and leave everyone free to use his own reason in all matters of conscience. He considered such rulers praiseworthy.
• He believed if a ruler was first enlightened with rational thoughts and ideals, they would be confident and courageous enough to allow the public to think for themselves. This would create an enlightened government and society.
• As per Kant, the manner of thinking of ruler who favors enlightenment goes even further from main point concerning enlightenment (i.e., man’s emergence from self-imposed immaturity), for he realizes that there is no danger to his legislation in allowing his subjects to use reason publicly and to set before the world their thoughts concerning better formulations of his laws, even if this involves frank criticism of legislation currently in effect.
• But only a ruler who is himself enlightened and has no dread of shadows, yet who likewise has a well disciplined, numerous army to guarantee public peace, can say what no republic may dare, namely: “Argue as much as you want and about what you want, but obey!”
• As per Kant, it is duty to obey the laws that govern a man, but it is also his duty to be able to freely question those laws that govern him. Only the questioning of the things that are already in place can lead to new ideas and improvement on society as a whole.