Major ideas of Enlightenment: Rousseau | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The English Enlightenment

The English Civil War and Glorious Revolution

• In the 17th century, England faced two major struggles for political power that deeply influenced Enlightenment thinkers. The first struggle occurred in 1649 when the English Civil War led to the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of a commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. Although this republic lasted for a decade, it eventually turned into a dictatorship, leading to the restoration of monarchy with Charles II.
• When the monarchy was restored, it had clear limitations on its power, as demonstrated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This bloodless revolution saw the English people overthrow a king they found unacceptable and choose new rulers. The catalyst for this was King James II, Charles II's son, who was openly Catholic, which displeased the predominantly Protestant population. The people supported James II's Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, who led a peaceful coup against James II, forcing him to flee to France.
• When William and Mary took the throne, they ended the Catholic monarchy and the concept of divine right. Subsequently, an English Bill of Rights was established, enhancing parliamentary power and individual liberties. This environment of increased freedom allowed for the flourishing of science, arts, and philosophy.

Thomas Hobbes

• Thomas Hobbes was a political philosopher during the English Enlightenment. In 1640, fearing his writings had upset Parliament, he fled to Paris, where he wrote much of his work, including the famous Leviathan(1651). This book explores human nature and lays the groundwork for social contract theory.
• In Leviathan, Hobbes argues that human nature is fundamentally bad, leading to a constant state of war over power and resources. He believes that only a strong, absolute ruler can maintain peace and stability, as any group in power is likely to abuse it. He suggests that a single ruler is preferable to a group of rulers because the ruler's interests align with the nation's well-being. The ruler's main job is to protect the citizens, and if they fail, the citizens can switch their loyalty to another ruler.
• Hobbes, an atheist, thought religion was a useful tool for the state to remind people of their duties. He viewed human life as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" and was pessimistic about moral progress. Concerned that Leviathan might offend certain groups, he returned to London and lived a quiet life.
• Hobbes's work is praised for its logic but debated in meaning. Critics argue he didn't explain how selfish people could create and keep the state. He represents the darker side of the Enlightenment, seeing progress as controlling instincts rather than freeing them. Despite his support for absolute rulers, Hobbes also laid the groundwork for liberal ideas like individual rights and the equality of all men.

John Locke

• John Locke (1632–1704) was a major English political philosopher, known for his optimistic views in contrast to Hobbes. He received a prestigious education and became interested in political thought while studying medicine. Locke's ideas influenced thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire.
• Locke is famous for his liberalism and the development of social contract theory, which suggests that a government and its subjects enter an unspoken agreement when the government takes power. This contract implies that the government receives certain societal freedoms in exchange for protection. Locke emphasized that government authority comes from the consent of the governed and advocated for the rights of "Life, Liberty, and Property," arguing that the right to property is derived from labor.
• In his early writings, Locke addressed the religious intolerance and conflicts in England, but these works were not as influential as his later ones. His notable work, "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690), presented the idea that the human mind is a blank slate, capable of learning and improving through effort.
• Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" (also 1690) became highly influential, especially the second treatise, which laid the foundation for modern political thought. Unlike Hobbes, Locke's optimistic views gained more acceptance over time. His belief in the inherent goodness of people and the necessity of government for societal betterment resonated with later ideas, such as the separation of powers, which influenced the U.S. Constitution.

Scottish Enlightenment

• By 1750, Scotland's major cities had established a network of supporting institutions, including universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. This intellectual infrastructure significantly contributed to the transatlantic Enlightenment. Notably, Voltaire in France remarked, "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization," while the Scots closely followed French ideas.
• Francis Hutcheson, the first major philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment and a professor at the University of Glasgow, challenged Thomas Hobbes' ideas. He introduced the principle that virtue is about "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers." Hutcheson, regarded as the father of the Scottish Enlightenment, advocated for political liberty and the right to rebel against tyranny.
• David Hume and Adam Smith, Hutcheson's students, contributed significantly to the scientific method and modern attitudes towards science and religion. Hume was influential in the skeptical and empiricist traditions, developing a "science of man" that laid the groundwork for modern sociology. His ideas also impacted figures like James Madison and the U.S. Constitution.
• Adam Smith is renowned for his book The Wealth of Nations(1776), considered a foundational text in modern economics. Smith advocated for freedom in commerce and the global economy, significantly influencing British economic policy into the 21st century.
• Scientific advancements during this period included Joseph Black's discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) and James Watt's invention of the steam engine.

The French Enlightenment

• The French Enlightenment, although influenced by early figures from England, became a vibrant center of political and intellectual thought in the 1700s. Its roots lay in the discontent with the opulence of the French monarchy in the late 1600s.
• Under the extravagant reign of Louis XIV(1643–1715), Parisian intellectual elites began gathering in salons to critique the state of France. This practice intensified after Louis XIV's death and the less capable Louis XV's ascendance.
• Over time, discussions in these salons evolved from mere complaints to meaningful political discourse, particularly after the dissemination of John Locke's works. Salons became hubs for innovative thought, giving rise to the French Enlightenment.

The Philosophes

• In the early 1700s, Paris saw a rise in coffee shops, salons, and social groups that fostered intellectual debates about the political and philosophical landscape of the country.
• Members of these groups showed a growing eagerness to engage with the latest writings of prominent philosophers. These unconventional thinkers, known as the philosophes, advocated for personal freedoms, supported the ideas of Locke and Newton, criticized Christianity, and opposed the oppressive governments prevalent in Europe at the time.
• Despite their diversity, the leading French philosophes shared common ground. They were mainly writers, journalists, and educators who believed that human society could be enhanced through rational thinking.

Critique of the Church

• A significant portion of the philosophes' criticism was directed at the Church and its customs. Many prominent philosophes identified as deists, believing in a powerful creator likened to a "cosmic watchmaker" who set the universe in motion and then intervened no more.
• They also rejected organized religion and the Church's traditional "chain of being" concept, which suggested a natural order of existence—God first, followed by angels, monarchs, aristocrats, etc.
• The philosophes criticized the lavish lifestyles of top Church officials and the Church's practice of imposing high taxes and tithes on the common people to support the extravagant pay of bishops and other clergy.
• What troubled the philosophes the most was the Church's influence over gullible commoners, instilling fear of eternal damnation. While they had mixed feelings about the general populace, their disdain for the Church was strong.
• They challenged the Church by questioning beliefs like miracles and divine revelation, often using simple scientific explanations to refute specific doctrines. This led to mutual animosity between the Church and the philosophes.

Literacy

• The improving literacy rate in France played a crucial role in fostering a socially and politically active environment. More French people, especially in Paris and its vicinity, were not only discussing revolutionary ideas but also reading and writing about them.
• A symbiotic relationship emerged where readers eagerly anticipated new literature from the philosophes, and the feedback writers received motivated them to produce more. This academic atmosphere also allowed women in French society, though still in traditional roles as salon hostesses, to partake in the ongoing discourse.

Montesquieu

• Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755), a key figure of the French Enlightenment, was heavily influenced by John Locke's ideas.
• In his influential work The Spirit of Laws (1748), Montesquieu expanded on Locke's concepts, emphasizing the importance of separation of powers and advocating for a system of checks and balances in government.
• Montesquieu's ideas significantly impacted the development of democracy, although he believed that no single governmental system was superior; instead, different forms were more suitable in different contexts.
• As an early pioneer in sociology, Montesquieu collected data from various cultures and controversially concluded that climate plays a crucial role in determining the most suitable form of government for a region.
• He argued that environmental conditions influence behavior and responses, suggesting that governments should be tailored to the climatic conditions of their regions. However, he acknowledged that this theory was more applicable in theory than in practice.
• Montesquieu's legacy lies in his methodological approach, blending practicality with Enlightenment ideals.

Voltaire

• Francois-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire (1694–1778), was a prominent satirist of the Enlightenment who initially gained fame as a playwright.
• Voltaire was influenced by the works of John Locke and Isaac Newton during his exile in England, which shaped his prolific writing career.
• Despite being a deist who believed in God, Voltaire criticized organized religion, particularly Christianity, which he viewed as "glorified superstition."
• He was a strong advocate for monarchy and focused on judicial reform throughout his life.
• Voltaire's most famous work,Candide (1759), is regarded as one of the most influential literary pieces in history.
• Through his extensive body of work, Voltaire championed the use of reason over superstition and intolerance, becoming a prominent voice of the Enlightenment.
• His satirical style allowed him to make sharp criticisms while often evading serious repercussions from those he criticized.
• Voltaire's works,Dictionnaire philosophique (1764) and Letters on the English (1733), played a significant role in spreading Enlightenment ideals, influencing the course of the French Revolution.
• In Letters on the English, Voltaire compared conditions in France with British institutions, religion, and freedom of expression, leading to the banning of the book in France.
• Despite criticisms that he did not offer solutions to the problems he addressed, Voltaire's critiques alone prompted significant change.

Denis Diderot

• Denis Diderot(1713–1784) was a prominent French Enlightenment figure known for editing the Encyclopédie, a vast compilation of human knowledge.
• The Encyclopédie, published in twenty-eight volumes from 1751 to 1772, aimed to gather Enlightenment-era knowledge across various fields.
• Diderot, with assistance from Alembert, included not just facts but also philosophical discussions in the Encyclopédie.
• Contributors included notable scholars like Montesquieu,Voltaire, and Rousseau. The work faced criticism for its scientific approach and was seen as a challenge to the monarchy and the Church.
• The Encyclopédie played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas across Europe by presenting accumulated knowledge without pushing a specific agenda.
• It faced opposition from the Church and monarchy, leading Diderot to print copies in secret.

Skepticism and Romanticism

New Movements

• As the Enlightenment advanced into the mid-1700s, a clear shift occurred away from the empirical and reason-based philosophies that characterized the ideas of prominent French and English thinkers.
• The emerging philosophies during this period generally took one of two distinct directions:

Romanticism

• Romanticism, closely associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, emphasized emotion and a return to the natural state of humanity, rejecting the limitations imposed by societal constructs.
• This philosophy advocated for a life grounded in direct perception, feeling, and experience, prioritizing emotion, intuition, and instinct over reason in guiding human behavior.
• Romanticism's accessible and relatable approach resonated more with the public compared to the often perceived as cold and detached rationalism of the Enlightenment.

Skepticism

• Skepticism, championed by Scottish philosopher David Hume and later advanced by German philosopher Immanuel Kant, questioned the degree to which humans can accurately perceive and understand the world around them.
• These two movements, along with anti-Enlightenment propaganda from the Church and growing unrest in the lead-up to the French Revolution, represented a significant departure from the dominant Enlightenment thought.

David Hume

• David Hume (1711–1776) was a Scottish philosopher and writer who significantly influenced the development of skeptical thought.
• A committed skeptic, Hume extensively explored the limits of human reasoning in his work.
• His first major work, A Treatise of Human Nature(1739), despite its current acclaim, was initially overlooked due to its complex language.
• Hume addressed this oversight in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding(1748), where he presented similar ideas in a more accessible manner.
• Hume's research focused on reason, perception, and particularly morality.
• He questioned the reliability of the senses and perception in providing a consistent understanding of the world.
• Regarding morality, Hume argued that if an action seemed reasonable to an individual, it was morally justified.
• By introducing this personal perspective on perception and morality, Hume challenged broad philosophical generalizations.
• He believed everything was subject to some level of uncertainty, a notion that profoundly impacted intellectual discourse.
• Despite his views on Enlightenment principles, Hume consistently pondered the idea that since absolute certainty is unattainable, one might as well not bother.
• Hume applied his skeptical framework to science and religion, contending that while neither could provide complete explanations, science was superior for its acknowledgment of its limitations.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a significant figure in the Enlightenment of 18th-century Europe. His political ideas influenced the French Revolution and contributed to the foundation of modern thought.
• After becoming an orphan in Geneva, Rousseau, who was largely self-taught, spent his youth wandering and contributing intellectually where he could.
• He developed a new method of musical composition, wrote articles for Diderot’s Encyclopédie, and produced essays on various subjects. His essay Discourse on the Arts and Sciences(1750) brought him initial fame, followed by the renowned Discourse on the Origin of Inequality(1755).

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)

• Rousseau's work in Discourse on the Origin of Inequality(1755) traced humanity's shift from a peaceful natural state to societal imbalance, attributing this change to the emergence of different professions and private property, which he believed led to inequality and moral decline.
• He argued that greed had corrupted humanity, with the strong seizing land and property and imposing their will on the weak.
• Rousseau identified two types of inequality:
• Natural Inequality, such as differences in intelligence or laziness, which he deemed tolerable as they are beyond human control.
• Conventional Inequality, created by societal structures. For example, where certain groups have job opportunities while others do not. Rousseau argued that this type of inequality should be abolished.
• He emphasized that conventional inequality was a product of social systems and that the growth of civilization had led to various forms of inequality based on status, wealth, and power.
• Rousseau believed that the ideal state of humanity was one without private property, as he saw property as the root of greed,corruption, and war.
• In his vision of an ideal world, Rousseau advocated for a return to a more natural state of being, arguing that humans were equal and free in their natural state but became unequal with the rise of civilization.
• He posited that nature elevated humanity while civilization corrupted it, suggesting that civil institutions should align more closely with natural principles to reduce corruption. This perspective reflects elements of romanticism.
• His critiques of inequality and private property foreshadowed ideas found in communism.

Emile (1762)

• In his book Emile,Rousseau proposed a novel approach to education, emphasizing that it should be closely aligned with nature.
• He criticized excessive reliance on books and advocated for practical, experiential learning.
• Rousseau believed that education should:
• Foster the child's thinking and reasoning through personal experiences.
• Align with the natural development of the child's abilities.
• Include observation of nature as a crucial aspect of the learning process.

Rousseau: A Pioneer of Romanticism

• Rousseau was one of the first proponents of Romanticism.
• He emphasized the natural order and the inherent goodness of man, contrasting with the overemphasis on reason in guiding human behavior.
• His ideas suggested that people are born good but become distorted through excessive reasoning.
• Romanticism, as he viewed it, called for a return to life as experienced through emotion,intuition, and instinct, rather than through reason.

Appreciation of Shakespeare and Romantic Writers

• During the Romantic era, Shakespeare’s romantic tragedies were appreciated anew, alongside the works of many other authors and poets who gained prominence in the following century of Romantic writing.
• The approachable philosophies of Romanticism resonated more with the public compared to the cold rationalism of the Enlightenment.

Rousseau’s Impact on Romanticism

• Though not the only significant Romantic author, Rousseau was among the first, with two of his works deeply resonating with the public.
• “Julie”, a story of forbidden love, struck a relatable chord with readers.
• Rousseau’s autobiography “Confessions” pioneered a new era of personal revelation in autobiography, discussing anxiety and flaws with unprecedented openness.
• By being frank and personal, Rousseau challenged the prevailing reliance on reason, emphasizing the importance of the heart over the mind.

Heart vs. Mind in Rousseau’s Philosophy

• Rousseau’s statement “The Promptings of the Heart are more to be trusted than the Logic of the Mind” reflected his Romantic belief in the primacy of heartfelt inspiration over reason.
• He critiqued the era’s reliance on scientific development and reason, arguing that industrialization caused more misery than good.
• Rousseau advocated for values like family life and love for labor, emphasizing the heart’s role over materialistic pursuits driven by scientific advancements.

G.K. Chesterton’s Interpretation of Rousseau

• Chesterton’s view that “Reason is always a kind of brute force” echoes Rousseau’s emphasis on the heart over the mind.
• He argued that appealing to the head rather than the heart is a form of violence, aligning with Rousseau's perspective on the limitations of reason.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Critique of the Enlightenment

• Many believed Rousseau shared the Enlightenment's core beliefs, but his ideas also reflected a counter-Enlightenment perspective.
• Rousseau showed a similar disdain for reason, knowledge, and individualism as he did for the sciences.
• His romanticism emphasized a return to life as it is seen, felt, and experienced, promoting reliance on emotion, intuition, and instinct over reason in guiding human behavior.
• Rousseau is viewed as a counter-Enlightenment thinker, representing a Romantic rebellion against the Enlightenment's scientific and rational approach.
• In his work A Discourse on the Sciences and Arts, he argued that science did not improve morality or contribute significantly to happiness, claiming that the progression of sciences led to the corruption of virtue and morality. This stance opposed the Enlightenment belief that scientific progress purifies morals and enhances happiness.
• In his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, Rousseau challenged the Enlightenment's foundation of reason. While Enlightenment thinkers viewed reason as the basis of civilization, Rousseau believed that civilization's rational progress came at the cost of morality. He argued that humans are inherently good but are corrupted by contemporary civil society.
• Rousseau emphasized empathy over reason as the basis of morality and criticized civilization as corrupting, not only due to the oppressive feudal system of 18th-century France with its parasitic aristocracy but also the Enlightenment's celebration of reason, property, the arts, and sciences.
• His arguments were grounded in the belief that the welfare of all mankind surpasses that of the individual, contrasting with the Enlightenment's focus on individualism.
• Rousseau viewed society as an organic development with all its elements intertwined, opposing the Enlightenment's individualistic perspective.
• He critiqued the Enlightenment's atomized social ideal based on abstract individualism, arguing it failed to account for real human behavior in societies.
• Rousseau's critique marked the beginning of the conflict between the Enlightenment and its adversaries, with historians like William R. Everdell regarding Rousseau as the "founder of the Counter-Enlightenment."

The Social Contract (1762)

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau's most renowned and impactful work is The Social Contract.
• He opens the book with the famous line: “Men are born free, yet everywhere are in chains,” highlighting how civil society restricts natural freedom.
• Rousseau argues that in the state of nature, humans were free, equal, and independent, without any chains. However, with the rise of civilization and the need to protect prosperity, the state and civil institutions emerged.
• He believes that this led to the loss of natural equality and the bliss of natural life, resulting in various forms of inequality and bondage.
• Rousseau claims that civil society fails to uphold the promised equality and individual liberty that people expected when entering into it.
• For him, legitimate political authority comes from the consent of all people, who agree to a government through a social contract for their mutual preservation.
• He introduces the concept of the “sovereign,” which is the collective group of all citizens, similar to an individual person. While individuals have their own particular wills, the sovereign expresses the general will aimed at the common good.
• Rousseau advocates for the death penalty for those who breach the social contract.
• The general will represents the collective interest of the community, reflecting the genuine interest and common good of all. It evolves through discussions and debates, and individuals must prioritize it over their particular wills.
• He emphasizes that true freedom lies in obeying the general will, as it aligns with people's natural inclination to think of others.
• Rousseau rejects the idea of political representation, such as monarchy or parliament, arguing that sovereignty lies with the community as a whole. The general will cannot be transferred or represented, as it embodies the common good of everyone.
• His idea of general will introduces democratic elements, broadening the democratic ideas of thinkers like John Locke.
• The government, led by magistrates, is responsible for implementing and enforcing the general will, with law-making power resting in the hands of the people through direct democracy.
• Rousseau calls for individuals to surrender their individual rights to a collective body with a unified will, known as the General Will, ensuring both individual liberty and the authority of the government.

Criticism of General Will

• Rousseau's idea of the General Will is seen as vague, making it open to misuse and danger.
• He distinguishes the General Will from the collective agreement of society members, which raises concerns about individual freedom versus government power, suggesting a potential for absolutism in his philosophy.
• The General Will represents what is best for everyone, not just the majority's preference, implying that it should take precedence over individual desires.
• Rousseau advocates for submitting to the General Will, even at the cost of personal rights, to prevent domination by others and ensure self-governance.
• Historically, this concept was exploited by dictators, like Robespierre during the French Revolution, to justify extreme actions in the name of the General Will.
• Rousseau believed that an abundance of political parties weakens the General Will, leading to the idea that factions should be eliminated for effective governance.
• This perspective contributed to transforming the French republic into a near-totalitarian regime under the Committee for Public Safety, sidelining democratic processes.
• Unlike previous thinkers who viewed the political contract as an agreement between the governed and a ruler or rulers, Rousseau's social contract involves the entire society agreeing to be governed by the General Will, marking a significant shift in political theory.

Rousseau's Sovereign Compared to Hobbesian Leviathan

• Thomas Hobbes's Sovereign:
• In his book Leviathan, Hobbes argues for a social contract and the rule by an absolute sovereign.
• Hobbes famously described life in a "state of nature" as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
• Without political order and law, individuals would have unlimited natural freedoms, leading to plunder, rape, murder, and an endless "war of all against all."
• To escape this chaos, free individuals come together to form a political community through a social contract, agreeing to submit to an absolute sovereign in exchange for security.
• The sovereign is responsible for protecting the people both from external threats and internal conflicts, with peace and preservation being the foundation for its creation.
• Hobbesian sovereign represents the ultimate and supreme authority in the state, even if it is arbitrary or tyrannical.
• Hobbes believed that absolute government was the only alternative to the anarchy of a state of nature.

Comparison of Rousseau’s Sovereign with Hobbesian Sovereignty

• Rousseau's Sovereign: Rousseau's concept of the sovereign is grounded in the idea of the General Will, which represents the collective interests of the people.
• Critique of General Will: Rousseau's theory has been criticized for being incomplete, vague, and susceptible to misuse. Distinguishing the General Will from the will of all individuals can be challenging in practice.
• Abstract Nature: Rousseau's General Will is seen as abstract and narrow. Critics argue that it resembles Hobbes' Leviathan, leading to absolutism, but without a single, absolute sovereign as in Hobbesian sovereignty.
• Source of Laws: In Rousseau's framework, the General Will serves as the source of all laws, with each individual acting as a lawmaker who consents to obey the laws.
• Participatory Democracy: Rousseau envisioned a free state characterized by consensual and participatory democracy, where the General Will emerges from an assembly of equal lawmakers.
• Legislative Will: The legislative will, which is sovereign, must be aligned with the General Will, aiming to promote the general interests of all members.
• Government as Agent: Rousseau viewed the government as an agent of the General Will, playing a crucial role in the body politic.
• Distinct from Hobbes and Locke: Rousseau's concept of sovereignty differs from Hobbes and Locke. While Hobbes advocates for a sovereign with absolute power, and Locke supports a limited government, Rousseau emphasizes the inalienable and indivisible sovereignty of the people.
• Democracy vs. Ideal Government: Rousseau believed that a perfect government would be democratic if it governed a nation of gods. However, he rejected pure democracy as unsuitable for humans.
• Components of Rousseau’s Political Theory: Rousseau's political theory comprises the sovereign assembly of the people, the government (prince or magistrates), and the people who obey the government but retain the power to change it if necessary.
• Forms of Government: Rousseau identified different forms of government (democracy, aristocracy, monarchy) and argued that monarchy is the strongest form, while aristocracy is often the most stable.
• Sovereignty and Government Distinction: Rousseau emphasized the distinction between sovereignty (the power to make laws) and government (administration). The government, composed of magistrates, implements the General Will, while sovereignty rests with the citizens.
• Democratic Legislation: Rousseau advocated for direct democracy in legislation, where every citizen participates in person. He rejected representative assemblies and emphasized the importance of citizen oversight of the government.
• Rejection of Democratic Administration: Rousseau deemed democratic administration impractical and argued that executive functions should be entrusted to magistrates.
• Critique of Democracy: Rousseau criticized democracy as unrealistic and argued that it could lead to civil war and internal strife. He believed that the conditions for legitimate democracy are rarely met in practice.
• Citizen's Role: The citizen's role is to monitor the government and periodically convene with fellow citizens to review and amend fundamental laws.
• Sovereign Authority: Ultimate legislative authority belongs to the citizenry and cannot be delegated. Rousseau rejected the idea of representation as a mockery.
• Aristocratic Preference: Rousseau preferred elective aristocracy over hereditary aristocracy and warned against the decline into hereditary rule.
• Ideal vs. Practical: Rousseau acknowledged that his ideal system outlined in The Social Contract was not in practice anywhere and provided more moderate advice to governments when asked.
• Influence of Ancient Republics: Rousseau's ideas were influenced by the utopian republics of ancient Greece and Rome, where citizens had a direct say in government.

Rousseau's Conflicting Ideas

• He supported democracy but also favored absolutism.
• He championed individual liberty while advocating for the absolute submission of individuals to the state.
• He viewed property as a curse of civilization in some contexts, yet also described it as a sacred institution.
• He considered equality an important ideal but accepted the subordinate position of women.
• He emphasized the importance of toleration but supported the banishment of atheists from the country.
• Rousseau spent his later years in solitude, but before that, he wrote the Confessions(1765–1770), a deeply personal autobiography.
• In the Confessions, he detailed his struggles to remain true to his principles despite gaining fame and wealth.