Religion: Sufism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The medieval period saw the emergence of various Muslim religious movements, mystic organizations, and religious cults.
• Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, aimed at establishing a direct connection between God and individuals through personal experiences of the mysteries within Islam.
• Every religion experiences mystical tendencies at a certain stage of its evolution. Sufism was a natural progression within Islam, rooted in the spirit of Quranic piety.
• Sufism emerged as a reaction against institutionalized dogma. While the Sufis accepted the Shariat(Islamic law), they emphasized personal religious experiences over strict formalities.
• Unlike the scholars of Kalam, who focused on defending God's transcendence, Sufism aimed for the inner realization of divine unity through intuitive and spiritual faculties.
• Sufis rejected rational arguments in favor of contemplation and meditation. They emphasized the esoteric aspects of Islam, which involve the purification of the heart through ethical regeneration.
• This purification is reflected in the Islamic doctrine that Allah should be worshipped with the certainty that the worshipper is either watching Allah or being watched by Him.

Meaning of Sufi 

• The word "Sufi" likely comes from the Arabic word "suf," which means wool.
• Eastern ascetics used to wear coarse woolen garments, a practice also adopted by Sufis to signify poverty.
• Another possible origin of the term "Sufism" is the Arabic word "safa," which means purity.

Origin of Sufism 

Early Sufis and Their Beliefs:

• Some early Sufis, like Rabia, a woman mystic from Basra, and Mansur-al-Hallaj, emphasized love as the connection between God and the individual soul.
• These early Sufis based their ideas on certain verses from the Quran and the Hadiths(Traditions) of the Prophet Muhammad.

Influences on Sufi Thought:

• Over time, Sufi thought was influenced by a variety of sources, including Christianity,Zoroastrianism,Buddhism, and the Indian philosophical systems of Vedanta and yoga.

Sufism and Orthodox Islam:

• Mysticism, as practiced by the Sufis, was often viewed negatively by Muslim fundamentalists. This led to the persecution of Sufis, with some being accused of heresy and blasphemy and facing severe consequences.
• Sufis offered mystic interpretations of religious texts, while orthodox Muslims adhered to a literal interpretation.
• Orthodox Muslims focused on external conduct, whereas Sufis prioritized inner purity.
• While orthodox Muslims emphasized strict adherence to religious rituals, Sufis believed that love was the only true path to God.
• Sufis employed singing and dancing, practices forbidden by orthodox Muslims, as methods to achieve a state of ecstasy, bringing them closer to union with God.

Features of Sufism 

Sufi Orders (Silsilah) in India:

• Sufi orders, known as silsilah, emerged both in India and beyond, each with unique characteristics but sharing common features.
• Path to Divine Reality: Emphasis on the sufi path (tariqa) as a means to achieve direct communion with divine reality (haqiqat).
• Stations and States: Novices must navigate through various “stations” or “stages” (maqamat) and changing psychological conditions to experience God.
• Role of the Spiritual Guide: The sufi path can only be followed under the guidance of a spiritual leader (shaikh, pir, or murshid) who has successfully traversed it and established a connection with God.
• Practices of the Disciple: Disciples (murid) progress through stages and states by engaging in spiritual exercises like self-mortification and the recollection of God’s name for concentration.
• Sama (Musical Recital): Sufis practiced sama to induce mystical ecstasy, a practice met with hostility from the Ulema.
• Justification of Sama: The Sufi perspective justified sama by emphasizing the lover of God’s unique relationship with the divine, where music is seen as a means to intensify love and induce ecstasy.
• Organization into Orders: Sufis organized into various orders such as Suhrawardi, Qadiri, Chishti, etc.
• Khanqah as Training Center: The hospice (khanqah) served as the central hub for a sufi order, where the pir provided spiritual training to disciples.
• Attraction of Khanqahs: The popularity of a khanqah and its ability to attract disciples depended on the reputation of the pir.
• Support for Khanqahs: Khanqahs were sustained through endowments and charitable contributions.

Tasawwuf

• Sufism is based on the concept of Tasawwuf, which is often seen as the inner dimension of Islam. While scholars have offered numerous definitions, Tasawwuf can be simply understood as the spiritual core of the faith.
• The core elements of Tasawwuf include:
• Marifat/Ittisal/Wasl: This refers to the mystical union with God.
• Zikr: The practice of constantly remembering God.
• Sama: A special form of Zikr that involves dancing, music, and other artistic expressions.
• Tark-i-Duniya: The rejection of worldly attachments in favor of otherworldly concerns.
• Fana-o-Baqa: The dissolution of the self, which paves the way for union with God.
• Wahadat-ul-Wujud/Tauhid-i-wujudi: The concept of unity between God and all beings.
• Additionally, Tasawwuf emphasizes values such as repentance, perseverance, compassion, charity, service, equality, and pacifism.

Advent of the Sufis to India 

Migration and Impact of Sufis in India:

• Sufis migrated to distant countries, including India, where they lived among non-Muslims and engaged in peaceful proselytization.
• The arrival of Sufis in India is linked to the Arab conquest of Sindh.
• Following the establishment of Muslim rule in northern India, Sufis from various Muslim countries began to settle in different regions of India.
• Some early Sufi saints arrived in India even before the Delhi Sultanate was established.
• The core features of Sufism in India remained consistent with those in the broader Islamic world.
• However, the subsequent development of Sufism in India was more influenced by the Indian environment than by non-Indian variations of Sufism.
• Once Sufi orders became established in various parts of India, they underwent their own phases of growth, stagnation, and revival, largely shaped by local circumstances, though external influences from the wider Islamic world persisted.
• Al Hujwiri, who settled in India around A.D. 1088, was the earliest known Sufi in the region and authored the Kashf-ul Mawub, a renowned Persian treatise on Sufism.
• After the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, various Sufi orders were introduced in India, becoming new homes for Sufis who, along with many other refugees, fled from different parts of the Islamic world.
• By the mid-14th century, much of the Indian subcontinent was under the influence of Sufi activities, with the Chishti order emerging as the most popular among various Sufi orders.

The Silsilahs 

Introduction to Sufi Orders in India:

• Sufis in India were organized into various orders, known as silsilahs.
• Abul Fazal listed fourteen Sufi orders that came to India.

Chishti Silsilah:

• Centred in Ajmer.
• Spread to Rajasthan,Punjab,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,Bengal,Orissa, and the Deccan.

Suhravardi Silsilah:

• Confined to Sindh,Multan, and the Punjab.

The Chisti Silsilah

• The Chishti order, founded by Khwaja Abdul Chishti in Herat around 966 AD, emphasized deep devotion and connection with God.
• With the guidance of his mentor, Khwaja Abdul Chishti moved to India in 1190 and eventually settled in Ajmer, where he passed away in 1234 AD.
• His teachings focused on the importance of piety, humility, and unwavering devotion to God.
• He believed that those who truly know God prefer solitude and refrain from discussing divine matters with others.
• After his demise, the Chishti order flourished under the leadership of his dedicated disciples.
• The growth of this spiritual lineage in India occurred in two distinct phases.

First Phase: (early 13th to later 14th century) 

Introduction of the Chishti Order in India:

• Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti(died 1236), originally from Persia, introduced the Chishti order in India.
• He was a disciple of Khwaja Usman Haruni.
• Arriving in India in 1190 during the Ghori conquest, he settled in Ajmer around 1206.
• His simple, pious, and dedicated life greatly impacted those around him, earning respect from both Muslims and non-Muslims.
• He did not actively seek conversions and showed tolerance towards non-Muslims.
• His tomb in Ajmer later became a famous pilgrimage center.

Disciples of Muinuddin Chisti:

• Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki(died 1235) and Shaikh Hamiduddin(died 1276) were two prominent disciples of Muinuddin Chisti.
• Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki popularized the Chishti order in Delhi during the reign of Iltutmish, refusing royal patronage. The famous Qutub Minar was named after him.
• Shaikh Hamiduddin, who spread the order in Rajasthan, lived a simple life, was a strict vegetarian, and mingled freely with Hindus.

The Role of Music in Chishti Mysticism:

• The Chishti mystics believed in the spiritual significance of music. Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki passed away in a state of ecstasy influenced by music.

Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (Baba Farid):

• Baba Farid, a disciple of Bhaqtiyar Kaki, popularized the Chisti order in Haryana and Punjab.
• He led a household life, and some of his sayings were included in the Adi Granth of the Sikhs 300 years later.
• Farid distanced himself from political figures and the wealthy, advising his disciple Syed Maula to avoid friendships with kings and nobles.
• He conveyed a similar message to his chief disciple,Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Baba Farid passed away at the age of 93 in 1265.

Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1236-1325):

• Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, the most prominent disciple of Baba Farid, made Delhi the central hub of the Chishti order.
• Throughout the reign of seven sultans of Delhi, he never visited their courts.
• Despite facing criticism from orthodox Ulema, his liberal views and love for music shaped Delhi's socio-cultural atmosphere.
• He emphasized love as the means to realize God, teaching that love for humanity is essential for loving God.
• Social justice and benevolence were integral parts of his teachings. Unlike many other Chisti saints, Nizamuddin Auliya practiced celibacy.
• He adopted yogic breathing exercises, earning the title siddha or perfect from yogis.
• The langar(community kitchen) in his khanqah was open to both Muslims and non-Muslims.

Amir Khusrau (1253-1325):

• Amir Khusrau, a devoted disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, documented the Shaikh's teachings and conversations in Fawaid-ul Fuwad.
• Even after his death in 1325, Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya commanded immense respect.
• The message of love imparted by Shaikh Nizamuddin was spread across the country by his disciples.

Spread of Nizamuddin Auliya's Teachings:

• Shaikh Sirajuddin Usmani carried Nizamuddin Auliya's message to Bengal.
• Shaikh-Burhanuddin, another disciple, settled in Daultabad, and his message was spread by Shaikh Zainuddin.
• In Gujarat, Shaikh Syed Hussain, Shaikh Husamuddin, and Shah Brakatullah spread the message of equality and humanitarianism.

Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud (d. 1356):

• Known as Chiragh-i-Delhi(Lamp of Delhi), Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud succeeded Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.
• He and some disciples discontinued certain early Chishti practices that clashed with Islamic orthodoxy, striving for reconciliation with the ulema.

Decline of the Chishti Order in Delhi during the later Tughluq and Saiyyid Periods

Some scholars believe that the decline of Delhi as a center for the Chishti order was due to the attitudes and policies of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq. However, this is not the correct reason. In fact, after Muhammad Tughlaq's death, Feroz Shah Tughluq showered gifts on the Chishti order.
Reasons for the decline include:

• Shaikh Nasiruddin died without appointing a spiritual successor.
• His chief disciple, Gesu Daraz, left Delhi for a safer place in the Deccan during Timur's invasion in 1398.
• As the Delhi Sultanate declined, the Sufis dispersed to more stable provincial kingdoms, bringing changes in their attitudes and practices.
• The second phase in the history of the Chishti silsilah began with its decline in Delhi following the death of Shaikh Nasiruddin.
• Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib introduced the Chishti order in the Deccan during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
• Chishti Sufis who migrated to Gulbarga, the capital of the Bahmani kingdom, established close relations with the court.
• The Bahmani kings purchased the political loyalty of these Sufis and granted them land.
• Muhammad Banda Nawaz, Gesudaraz (c. 1321-1422), was a prominent and orthodox Sufi.
• He declared the supremacy of Islamic law (Shariat) over all Sufi stages.
• His dargah in Gulbarga later became a popular place of pilgrimage in the Deccan.
• The decline of the Chishti tradition in Gulbarga was due to the transformation of his descendants into a landed elite.
• The change of the Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar in 1422 also contributed to this decline.
• The Bahmani Court at Bidar encouraged the immigration of foreign Sufis and did not patronize the Chishtis.
• Shaikh Salim Chisti (1478–1572) during the reign of Akbar helped the Chishti order regain prominence.
• Akbar named his first son Salim, later Emperor Jahangir, in honor of Chishti.
• Bairam Khan, a prominent figure, held Aziz Chishti in high esteem.
• The Chishti tradition of Shahpur Hillock from the late 15th century was distinct from most later Chishti traditions.
• It maintained distance from the court and the ulema, drawing inspiration from local influences.
• In North India during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, three different branches emerged:
  • Nagauriya, named after Shaikh Hamiduddin Nagauri.
  • Sabiriya, named after Shaikh Alauddin Kaliyari.
  • Nizamiya, named after Shaikh Nizammddin Auliya, founded by Makhdum Alauddin Ali Sabri, who led a reclusive life.

Causes of Chishti popularity

The Chishti Order in India:

• Popularity: The Chishti Order became the most popular Sufi order in India due to its rituals and practices that resonated with Indian culture.
• Resemblance to Non-Conformist Orders: Early Chishti practices were similar to those of existing non-conformist religious orders in India, including asceticism, bowing before the master, shaving the head of new entrants, and organizing spiritual musical recitals.
• Liberal Thought: Many Chishti saints belonged to a liberal school of thought, which contributed to their popularity in India.
• Religious Tolerance: The Chishtis practiced religious tolerance towards non-Muslims and used Hindawi, popular imagery, and idioms to convey their teachings.
• Adoption of Hindu Customs: They adopted Hindu customs and ceremonies while emphasizing service to mankind.
• Pantheistic Monism: The Chishti mystics believed in pantheistic monism, a concept found in the Hindu Upanishads, which helped bridge the gap between Hindus and the Chishti silsilah.
• Egalitarianism: The Chishti khanqahs fostered an egalitarian atmosphere, attracting people from lower sections of society and disregarding caste distinctions.
• Rejection of Racial Divisions: They rejected the Turkish ruling class's racial division of people into noble-born and low-born.
• Leadership and Orthodoxy: Early Chishti masters demonstrated excellent leadership by rejecting orthodoxy and state patronage while combining simple Islamic precepts with Sufi teachings.
• Ulema Hostility: Hostility from the ulema (Islamic scholars) also contributed to the popularity of the Chishti Order.
• Miracle Stories: Miracle stories about early Chishtis enhanced the popularity of Chishti dargahs and the posthumous fame of the Sufis.
• Posthumous Respect: Writers and legend-makers gave the Chishti Sufis great respect after their death, further solidifying their legacy.

The Suhravardi Silsilah

• Shaikh Sahabuddin Suhrawardi (d. 1234) started the Suhrawardi silsilah in Baghdad.
• Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya and Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi, both disciples of Sahabuddin, were sent to India by him to spread the Suhrawardi order.
• Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262) was the founder of this silsilah in India. He did his missionary work in Multan.
• He supported Iltutmish in his conquest of Multan against Qubacha and received state support from the Delhi Sultanate.
• Iltutmish honored him with the title of Shaikh-ul Islam (Leader of Islam) and granted him endowments.
• Unlike the Chishti saints of his time, Zakariya adopted a worldly approach, amassed wealth, and maintained connections with the ruling class.
• The saints of the Suhrawardi order thereafter stayed connected with the establishment and actively engaged in political activities.
• Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi initially struggled to establish his authority in Delhi but later moved to Bengal, where he significantly contributed to the spread of Islam.
• The main centers of Suhrawardi activities were Punjab, Sind, and Bengal, where they converted Hindus to Islam with the support of the ruling class.
• Shaikh Ruknuddin, highly respected by the Sultans of Delhi, believed that a Sufishould possess three qualities:
  • Property to meet the physical needs of a Qalandar.
  • Knowledge to engage in discussions with the Ulema.
  • Hal (mystical enlightenment) to impress other Sufis.
• After his death (1334-35), the Suhrawardi order expanded beyond Multan, spreading from Uch to Gujarat, Punjab, Kashmir, and even Delhi.
• During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, the order was revitalized by Syed Jalaluddin Bukhari, a staunch and puritan Muslim who opposed the increasing Hindu influence on Muslim social and religious practices.
• Other saints of this order, such as Qutab-Alam and Shah-Alam, had a significant impact on the political figures of their time.
• Unlike the Chistis, the Suhrawardis did not advocate a life of poverty, extreme austerity, or self-mortification. They led comfortable family lives, accepted expensive gifts, and patronage from the Muslim aristocracy.
• The Suhrawardis were actively involved with the government, accepted positions, and their order was mainly confined to the upper strata of Muslim society.
• Some Suhrawardi saints held rigid and uncompromising views on various religious and social issues.
• Contemporary historian Ziauddin Barani noted that Suhrawardi saint Syed Nuruddin Mubarak Ghaznavi advised Iltutmish to adopt a policy of discrimination and persecution against Hindus.
• However, some Suhrawardi saints were very liberal and broadminded, earning deep respect from Hindus.
• The reverence of Hindus in Bengal for Shaikh Jalauddin Tabrizi is reflected in the Sanskrit treatiseSekha Subhodaya, which includes legends about the saint prevalent among Hindus.

Other Silsilahs

Firdausi Order:

• A branch of the Suhrawadi order, the Firdausi order was established in Rajgir, Bihar, in the late 14th century.
• It was most prominent during the time of Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri(d. 1380).
• Shaikh Sharfuddin Ahmad Yahya was a strong believer in Wahdat-ul Wujud, a concept central to Sufi thought.

Qadiri Silsilah:

• Founded in Baghdad by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Gilani(d. 1166), the Qadiri order was introduced in India by Sayyid Muhammad Gilani(d. 1517).
• The order spread across Punjab,Sind, and the Deccan regions of India.
• Shaikh Musa, one of the prominent figures of the order, served in the court of Akbar, while his brother Shaikh Abdul Qadir remained independent of the government.
• The Qadiri order had an orthodox orientation and maintained close ties with the ruling classes.
• Its aim was to reform the religious life of Indian Muslims, steering them away from un-Islamic influences.

Dara Shikoh and the Qadiri Sufi Tradition:

• Dara Shikoh, a prince and notable figure in Indian history, was a follower of Mian Mir, a famous Qadiri Sufi saint from Lahore (1550-1635).
• Dara Shikoh was deeply impressed by Mian Mir's saintly personality during a visit to Lahore, where he was accompanied by Shah Jahan.
• After Mian Mir's death, Dara became a disciple of Mian Mir's successor,Mulla Shah Badakhshi.
• Dara Shikoh was present when Mulla Shah laid the foundation stone of the Golden Temple in Amritsar.
• The teachings and experiences Dara Shikoh gained from the Sufis were compiled in several books, including:
• “Safinat-ul-Auliya” (1640 AD)
• “Sakinat-ul-Auliya” (1643 AD)
• “Risala-e-Haq Numa” (1647 AD)
• “Tariqat-ul-Haqiqat”
• “Hasanat-ul Arifeen” (1653 AD)

Influence of Wahdat-ul Wujud:

• The concept of Wahdat-ul Wujud, which emphasizes the unity of existence, is evident in Dara Shikoh's mystic works.
• His notable works reflecting this influence include:
• “Safinat-ul Aullya”
• “Sakinat-ul Aullya”
• “Tariqat-ul-Haqiqat”
• “Hasanat-ul-Arifeen”
• “Risala-e-Haq Numa” (which also includes revelations about yoga)

Majma-ul-Bahrain:

• This book is the result of nine years of research and study on the doctrines of Brahmavidya and the Quran.
• “Majma-ul-Bahrain” serves as a testament to the similarities between Sufism and Hinduism.

Mukalama Baba Lal wa Dara Shukoh:

• This work is a compilation of dialogues between Dara Shikoh and Baba Lal, addressing various queries about Kashi, Hindu mythology, and different gods and goddesses.
• Topics discussed include Braj, the exact recitation of Om, the Panchabhuta, the aatma(human soul), and the paramaatma(divine soul).
• Dara Shikoh also gained knowledge in jyotish vidya(astrology) and is believed to have written a book on this subject in Sanskrit.

Sirri-i-Akbar:

• Inspired by the hidden treasures found in the Upanishads, Dara Shikoh translated these texts into Persian as Sirri-i Akbar.
• This book presents a remarkable parallel between the concept of tauhid(unity of God) in the Quran and the Upanishads.

Iksir-ul-Azam:

• This work is a collection of Dara Shikoh's ghazals and rubaiyats focusing on Sufism and Qadirism, which are doctrines of mysticism.

Qalandari:

• Qalandari refers to wandering dervishes, ascetic Muslim monks who often violated typical social behavior.
• They faced criticism under Islamic law and lacked organized spiritual masters and a formal organization.
• Many Qalandari individuals were observed to have connections with the Chishti order and adopted customs from the Nathpanthi tradition, such as ear-piercing.

Shattari:

• A orthodox order with strong ties to the state, the Shattari order was introduced in India in the 15th century by Shaikh Abdull Shattari.
• It became established in regions like Bengal,Jaunpur, and the Deccan.

Firdausi Silsilah:

• Founded by Shaikh Badruddin of Samarqand, the Firdausi silsilah was established in Delhi.

Shattari Silsilah:

• The Shattari silsilah was founded in India by Shaikh Abdullah Shattari(d. 1485).

Naqshbandi Silsilah:

• Founded by Khawaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi(1317-1389), the Naqshbandi order was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah(1563-1603).
• Prominent disciples of Khwaja Baqi Billah included Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Sheikh Abdul Haq of Delhi.

Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi:

• Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a disciple of Khwaja Baqi Billah, diverged from earlier mystic traditions.
• He emphasized the importance of Shariat(Islamic law) and criticized innovations (biddat) that he believed had corrupted Islam.

Opposition to Wahdat-ul Wujud:

• Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi rejected the concept of Wahdat-ul Wujud(unity of existence) and proposed Wahdat-ul Shuhud(apparentism) as a corrective to prevailing ideas.
• He stressed the relationship between man and God as one of master and servant, rather than lover and beloved, which was a common Sufi perspective.

Mujaddid of Islam:

• Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi is often referred to as the Mujaddid(renovator) of Islam due to his efforts to harmonize mysticism with Orthodox Islam.
• Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, was a disciple of Khwaja Mohammad Masum, the son of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

Shah Waliullah(1702-1762)

• Shah Waliullah was a notable scholar and saint of the Naqshbandi order.
• He sought to reconcile the doctrines of Wahdat-ul Wujud and Wahdat-ul Shuhud.

Khwaja Mir Dard

• Khwaja Mir Dard, a famous Urdu poet and mystic of the Naqshbandi order and a contemporary of Shah Waliullah, criticized followers of Wahdat-ul Wujud.
• He believed that closeness to God could only be attained through slavery to God.

Rishi Tradition

• The Rishi tradition flourished in Kashmir during the 15th and 16th centuries.
• It was an indigenous movement established by Shaikh Nuruddin Wali(d. 1430).
• The Rishi tradition gained popularity by drawing inspiration from the Shaivite bhakti tradition of Kashmir and was rooted in the region's socio-cultural context.

Decline of Sufism

• In the 14th century, the influence of Sufis began to wane due to doctrinal differences among various Sufi orders and the rise of Islamic orthodoxy.

Social role of Sufis 

Role of Sufis in Society and Politics:

• Sufis were important in society and sometimes in politics.
• Despite their mystical focus, they remained connected to real-life issues.
• Sufis emphasized social justice and kindness, balancing spiritual pursuits with moral responsibilities.

Sufis and the State:

• Early Chishti Sufis preferred independence from state support to maintain their autonomy.
• Most Sufis, including later Chishtis, engaged with the state and accepted its support, except for the early Chishtis and those in Shahpur Hillock.
• Chishti Sufis sometimes disagreed with specific sultans, like Muhammad Tughluq.
• Sufis from other silsilah integrated into state functions and assisted in creating a harmonious environment for diverse communities.
• Sufis did not challenge the political system or class structure but occasionally advised leniency in tax collection from peasants.

Sufis and the Ulema:

• Initially, the Ulema opposed Sufis and their practices, particularly the Chishti approach to religious integration.
• To reduce Ulema hostility, Chishti Sufis like Shaikh Nasiruddin and Gesudaraz aligned their practices with orthodox views.
• As the Chishti order became involved in court politics and accepted state support, their beliefs increasingly mirrored those of the Ulema.

Sufis and Conversions:

• Sufis are often viewed as key figures in spreading Islam in India.
• Even Sufis known for their tolerance, like Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti and Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia, are said to have participated in converting non-Muslims to Islam.
• Mir Saiyyid Ali Hamadani and his followers entered Kashmir in the 14th century with a strong proselytizing mission, although they had limited success.
• There is little evidence to suggest that early Sufis in the Deccan were militant warriors for Islam expansion.
• Later legends portrayed the first Sufis in the Deccan as champions of Islam who waged jihad, but many non-Muslims, especially from lower castes, were drawn to Sufis, leading to the Islamization of dargahs.

Material Life in Sufi Khanqahs:

• While there were instances of prosperous khanqahs linked to the state and some Sufis becoming landed elites, early Chishtis mostly lived in egalitarian khanqahs devoid of hierarchy.
• Khanqahs thrived on unsolicited charity (futuh) rather than state support, welcoming all societal sections and communities.
• Khanqahs contributed to economic activities by cultivating wastelands, constructing buildings for religious and public purposes, and planting gardens.
• They played a significant role in urbanization, with annual urs festivals boosting trade, commerce, and local handicraft production.

Interaction between Sufi and Bhakti Movement and cultural synthesis 

Influence of Sufism on the Bhakti Movement:

• Many scholars believe that the different forms of the Bhakti movement and the idea of Bhakti itself were influenced by Islam, both before and after the 12th century.
• They base this on the similarities between Islam and the Bhakti cults. However, this perspective is not entirely accurate because:
• Bhakti and its movements have indigenous roots. The concept of Bhakti developed within the ancient Indian religious tradition.
• The earlier South Indian Bhakti movement emerged even before the arrival of Islam in South India.
• It is more appropriate to understand the Bhakti movements of medieval India within their immediate historical context rather than searching for distant sources of inspiration from any particular religion.

Islamic Influence on Monotheists:
The relationship between the monotheistic Bhakti movement and Islam was one of mutual influence, with Sufism serving as a common ground.

Non-conformist saints adopted various Islamic ideas, such as:

• Unwavering faith in one God
• Rejection of the concept of incarnation
• Understanding of Nirguna Bhakti
• Critique of idolatry
• Denunciation of the caste system

Sufi notions of pir and mystical union with the “beloved” (God) aligned closely with non-conformist saints’ ideas of guru and devotion to God.
Some non-conformist saints interacted with Sufis, as seen in Guru Nanak’s encounters with Sufis described in the janam-sakhis.
Although Sufism and the monotheistic movement were historically separate, they shared many fundamental ideas, including a mutual rejection of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies.
The indirect interaction between these two movements likely provided momentum for both.

Islamic Influence on Vaishnava Bhakti Movements:

• Islamic influence on Vaishnava Bhakti movements was minimal because they did not reject idolatry, the caste system, or the theory of incarnation.
• Vaishnava Bhakti movements adhered to Saguna bhakti, which differs from the monotheistic emphasis found in Islamic influence.

Influence of the bhakti movement on Sufism

Rishi Order of the Sufis in Kashmir:

• The Rishi order was established by Shaikh Nuruddin Wadi.
• It was significantly influenced by the non-conformist ideas of Lal Ded, a 14th-century women bhakti-preacher and Kashmiri mystic from the Kashmir Shaivism tradition.

Interaction between Chishti Sufis and Nathpanthi Yogis:

• During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Nathpanthi movement gained popularity in Northern India, especially among the lower sections of society.
• Nathpanthi yogis would visit the khanqahs(spiritual retreat centers) of prominent Chishti sheikhs to discuss mysticism.
• Early Chishti Sufis embraced certain ethical values and lifestyle practices of the Nathpanthi yogis.
• Even prior to Sufism's arrival in India, the translation of the Yoga treatise Amrit-kund from Sanskrit to Persian introduced various meditative practices to Sufis.
• Similar to the Chishtis, the Nathpanthis welcomed individuals from all societal sections, regardless of caste distinctions.

Cultural synthesis

Chishti Adaptability and Cultural Synthesis in India:

• The Chishti order's ability to adapt to the non-Muslim environment of India sparked syncretic forces and led to a cultural synthesis.
• There was a common outlook among Sufis, Nathpanthis, and monotheists, which fostered mutual understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.
• Many early Chishtis spoke Hindawi and composed verses in it. This linguistic choice inspired the creation of mystical poetry in regional languages.
• Chandayan, written in Hindi by Mulla Daud in the 14th century, fused mysticism with Hindu mythology and philosophy. It was later translated into Persian by Chishti Sufi Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi.
• Growth of Eclectic Religious Life Sufi folk literature blended basic Islamic precepts with Sufi terminology and popular imagery, contributing to an eclectic religious life.
• Qawwali, initiated by Amir Khusrau, emerged as a syncretic musical tradition through the Chishti practice of sama.
• The interaction between different cultural and religious groups positively impacted social and cultural life, resulting in a synthesis in art, music, and literature.

Role of Sufi Movement in promoting communal harmony

Bhakti Movement and Sufism in Medieval India:

• Both the bhakti movement and Sufism significantly shaped medieval Indian society.
• Sufism emphasized the fundamental unity between different religions, promoting tolerance and reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims.
• The concepts of Islamic brotherhood and equality attracted low-caste Hindus, leading to widespread conversions.
• Sufis prioritized the unity of God and the path of devotion over rituals, ceremonies, and fasting.
• Akbar and his successors' liberal attitude made Sufi literature and thought popular among Hindu intellectuals.
• Akbar adopted the Sufi principle of Universal Brotherhood(sulh-i-kul) to foster a national identity in India.
• Sufi movements fostered religious tolerance between Hindus and Muslims, contributing to social stability.
• The conducive environment created by Sufism allowed Akbar to embrace a broader religious perspective, leading to the establishment of Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion.
• Bhakti reformers and Sufi saints fostered a spirit of brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims, enabling the Mughal emperors to practice religious tolerance.
• The bhakti movement laid the groundwork for Akbar's rule, transforming the Mughal state from a predominantly Muslim character to a national one.
• It also inspired figures like Shivaji to establish swarajya (self-rule) and contributed to the foundation of Sikhism.

Impact of the Sufi Movement

Decline of Sufi Influence in the Fourteenth Century:

• In the fourteenth century, the influence of the Sufis waned due to doctrinal differences among various Sufi orders and the rise of Islamic orthodoxy.

Sufi Contributions to Medieval Indian Society:

• Spread of Muslim Culture: Sufis played a crucial role in disseminating Muslim culture among the masses across different regions of India.
• Influence on Society: Similar to the bhakti movement, Sufism significantly shaped the character of medieval Indian society.
• Religious Tolerance: Sufis emphasized the essential unity of different religions and promoted tolerance, aiming to reconcile Hindus and Muslims.
• Educational Advancement: Sufi khanqahs(monasteries) became centers of knowledge and wisdom, contributing to societal advancement.
• Appeal to Lower Castes: Sufis, especially from the Chishti order, appealed to lower-caste Hindus, leading to significant conversions. The Islamic principles of equality and brotherhood resonated with them.
• Path of Devotion: Sufis emphasized the unity of God and the superiority of the path of devotion over rituals, ceremonies, and fasts.

Changing Perceptions and Influence under Akbar:

• Initially,high-caste Hindus were distant from Sufi saints.
• During Akbar's reign, some Persian-educated Hindus began to appreciate the Sufi philosophy, particularly the Chishti order.
• Akbar and his successors promoted a liberal and tolerant attitude, making Sufi literature and thought popular among Hindu intellectuals.
• Akbar adopted the Sufi doctrine of Universal Brotherhood(sulh-i-kul) in his efforts to establish a national state in India.

Mystical or Sufi literature

Doctrinal Texts:

• Sufi doctrines in India are based on well-known works like Kashf-ul-Mahjub by Hujwiri, which provides biographical details and aspects of Sufi thought since the time of the Prophet.
• Awarif-ul-Maarif by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi is another important work. Both authors emphasized the superiority of the Shariat(Islamic Code) and argued that Sufis must obey the Sharia. They viewed Sharia, Marifat (gnosis), and Haqlqat (reality) as interdependent.

Another category of literary works written in Persian includes:

• Treatises by Sufis on mysticism.
• Collections of letters written by Sufis.
• Malfuzat (discourses by Sufi saints).
• Biographies of Sufis.
• Collections of Sufi poetry.

Prince Dara Shukoh authored:

• Sakinatul Uliya, a biographical account of the Sufi Miya Mir and his disciples.
• Majm’aul Bahrain(Mingling of Two Oceans), where he compared Islamic Sufi concepts with Hindu philosophical outlook.

Sufi poets significantly contributed to Punjabi literature:

• Sultan Bahu expressed himself through intense poetry.
• Shah Husain(1553-1593) wrote passionate lyrics set to music, a genre known as kafi.
• Bulleh Shah is well-known for his works, which have become part of folklore and are integral to Punjab’s literary tradition.

Malfuzat texts as a source of medieval history

• Malfuzat texts capture the teachings of Sufi saints. In the 13th century, these oral teachings became written texts and were accepted as authoritative by both Sufi members and their followers.
• Malfuzat as Historical Source: Malfuzat texts were popular in 13th-century North India and are of great historical significance.
• One notable Malfuzat text is “Fawaid Al-Fuad” or “Morals of the Heart,” written by Amir Hasan Sijzi Dehlavi, a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
• The “Fawaid Al-Fuad” provides a valuable account of Nizamuddin Auliya's Sufi teachings and offers historical insights beyond the focus of court historians.
• Malfuzat texts reveal aspects of medieval society, including customs, manners, and people's issues, through recorded conversations.
• Hamid Qalandar continued the Malfuzat tradition by compiling the teachings of Nasiruddin Mahmud Chirag-i-Delhi, Nizamuddin Auliya's successor.
• Hamid documented the process of compiling Khair al-Majalis (the best of assemblies) in 1854, which was later approved by the master.
• Another significant text is Malfuzat on Burhan al-Din Gharib, such as Nafaid al-antas.

Limitations of Malfuzat as Historical Source:

• The authors of Malfuzat texts relied on memory rather than taking detailed notes during the masters' speeches, leading to potential errors and exaggerations.
• Sometimes, the Sufi saints themselves later improved upon these texts.
• Malfuzat texts focus on Sufi saints and do not provide much information about rulers or political history, as the saints were the main subjects of interest.