Developments and Legacy of Enlightenment | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The Enlightenment period was not confined to advancements in philosophy, literature, mathematics, or science. Across Europe, it sparked fresh ideas and progress in a wide range of academic, artistic, and societal areas. Some of the most remarkable achievements during this era include advancements in economics, law, industrial technology, women's rights, humanitarian efforts, and music.

Economics

• In the eighteenth century, many intellectuals in Europe were concerned about the close relationship between politics and economics.
• Serfdom, which kept peasants tied to unfavorable feudal contracts, and the use of tradition and class hierarchy to determine occupations, were still common.
• Mercantilism, an economic system that emphasized government control over trade to maintain a favorable balance of trade, was also criticized.
• Change began when French economist François Quesnay introduced the idea of a natural order of trade with limited government intervention in his Tableau Economique in 1758.
• Quesnay and his followers, known as Physiocrats, advocated for laissez-faire economics, promoting the idea of minimal government interference in trade.
• Adam Smith, a Scottish economist, expanded on these ideas in his influential work Wealth of Nations published in 1776.
• Smith outlined three key principles of economics:
• Self-interest drives productivity.
• Competition creates a balanced marketplace.
• Free trade determines true supply and demand.
• Smith’s promotion of laissez-faire economics was groundbreaking, arguing that individuals prosper best when trade is not heavily regulated.
• His concept of the “invisible hand” illustrated how a free system could lead to prosperity.
• Smith’s ideas significantly influenced the Western world and established economics as a scientific discipline.
• Many modern nations, especially the United States, adopted Smith’s principles, leading to substantial economic growth.

Law

• In the 18th century, European law was disordered. Laws were often unwritten, and court decisions could be random and unfair. Aristocrats and the religiously affiliated had protections against prosecution, while criticizing these groups could lead to legal trouble.
• During the Enlightenment, Italian reformer Cesare Beccaria criticized legal injustices in his 1764 work,On Crimes and Punishments. He argued for clear, reason-based laws, public trials, and standardized, non-torturous punishments. His ideas greatly influenced legal reforms across Europe.
• The French writer Voltaire also pushed for legal reform, using sharp satire to expose legal wrongs.

Industrial Revolution

• The Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s was rooted in Enlightenment-era Europe. It gained momentum in 1769 with James Watt's improvements to the steam engine, leading to the early factory system.
• Post-1769, Europe saw a tenfold increase in industry-related patents before 1800. The industrial boom attracted capitalist investors, created jobs, and spurred population growth.
• However, industrialization had downsides. Early factories faced no regulations, leading to severe pollution. Workers endured long hours, low wages, and harsh treatment, often including children. Attempts to form labor unions met with threats and intimidation until unions became well-organized and respected.

Women's Rights

• The Enlightenment period fostered the idea of increased women’s rights and equality. Olympe de Gouges, a feminist activist in late-eighteenth-century France, significantly contributed to this movement with her 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen.
• Gouges’ declaration was a response to the French Revolution’s 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and advocated for equal rights and liberty for women, including greater control over marriage.

Humanitarianism

• The advocacy for women’s rights during the Enlightenment reflected broader societal changes, including the decline of practices like slavery and witch burning.
• Children began to experience more affection and contact with parents, influenced by Rousseau's writings.
• Jews, previously marginalized, started to receive a warmer welcome across Europe.

Music

• The Enlightenment era produced renowned composers in Western music, particularly during the early Classical period of the late 1700s.
• Sebastian Bach(1685–1750) of Germany gained recognition as a master organist and prolific composer, with major works for both church and secular purposes, though his acclaim grew posthumously.
• Frideric Handel(1685–1759), born in Germany and working mainly in England, achieved fame during his lifetime as a court composer, known for popular operas.
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart(1756–1791) emerged as a key figure at the end of the Enlightenment, a child prodigy who composed music by age six, toured Europe by eight, and wrote operas by twelve, marking the transition to the Classical era.

Legacy of Enlightenment

Enlightened Absolutism

• In the later years of the Enlightenment, absolute monarchs in several European countries adopted some of the ideas of Enlightenment political philosophers. However, although some changes and reforms were implemented, most of these rulers did not fundamentally change absolutist rule.
• Enlightened absolutism(also called benevolent despotism or enlightened despotism)is a form of absolute monarchy or despotism inspired by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs especially embraced its emphasis upon rationality. They tended to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education.
• In Russia, empress Catherine the Great, a subscriber to the ideas of Beccaria and de Gouges, decried torture while greatly improving education, health care, and women’s rights, as well as clarifying the rights of the nobility. She also insisted that the Russian Orthodox Church become more tolerant of outsiders. However, she continued to imprison many of her opponents and maintained censorship and serfdom.
• In Austria, monarchs Maria-Theresa and Joseph II worked to end mistreatment of peasants by abolishing serfdom and also promoted individual rights, education, and religious tolerance. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support, that and his regime became a comedy of errors and revolts broke out and all his programs were reversed.
• An admirer of Voltaire, Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia, supported the arts and education, reformed the justice system, improved agriculture, and created a written legal code. However, although these reforms strengthened and streamlined the Prussian state, the tax burden continued to fall on peasants and commoners.
• There was difference between the “enlightenment” of the ruler personally, versus that of his or her regime. For example, Frederick the Great who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786, was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice. Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great defending this system of government.
• Frederick the Great, was an enthusiast for French ideas (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing). Voltaire, a French writer, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick’s invitation to live at his palace.Voltaire felt enlightened monarchy was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick explained, “My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice … to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit”.
• Others rulers like the Marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Portugal, used the enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy, crush opposition, suppress criticism, further colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit.
• Spain had a great deal of censorship in place during the early Enlightenment, but when Charles III ascended the throne in 1759, he implemented a number of reforms. During his tenure, Charles III weakened the influence of the Church, enabled land ownership for the poor, and vastly improved transportation routes.

Enlightenment-Era Frauds

• Not all the aftereffects of the Enlightenment were productive. Despite the advances in literacy, thought, and intellectual discussion that accompanied the Enlightenment, middle- and upper-class citizens often mistakenly carried this open-mindedness to an excessive degree. In many cases, this open-mindedness manifested itself in pure gullibility, as supposedly well-educated Europeans fell prey to “intellectual” schemes and frauds based on nothing more than superstition and clever speech.
• For instance, during the eighteenth century, people who called themselves phrenologists convinced many Europeans that a person’s character could be analyzed through the study of the contours of the skull. Likewise, the quack field of physiognomy claimed to be able to predict psychological characteristics, such as a predisposition to violence, by analyzing facial features or body structure. Similar medical hoaxes were common throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
• Although many of these misguided Enlightenment scientists believed that their methods could work, many were charlatans who knew exactly what they were doing. The world was wide-eyed and eager for new knowledge and, as of yet, lacked the fact-checking capabilities to separate real discoveries from pure deception.

The American Revolution

• The Enlightenment had a significant influence on the English colonies in America and later on the early United States.
• Philadelphia became a center of intellectual life in America, shaped by European ideas. Benjamin Franklin was a key figure, bridging ideas between Europe and America. He was instrumental in the American Revolution and the creation of a democratic government.
• Thomas Paine, a political writer, also applied Enlightenment concepts to the American Revolution. His pamphlet Common Sense(1776) advocated for the colonies' independence from England.
• The new United States embodied Enlightenment principles, implementing ideas that European philosophers could only discuss. The Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution reflected Enlightenment themes, with the Constitution incorporating ideas of separation of power.
• America was founded as a deist nation, acknowledging a natural God while allowing for diverse religious expressions. It continued the social and industrial developments that began in Europe.

The French Revolution

• Inspired by the Enlightenment, the French Revolution began in 1789, leading to the overthrow of Louis XVI and the establishment of a representative government.
• Internal conflicts led to changes in leadership, culminating in the Reign of Terror (1793-1794) under Maximilien Robespierre, where thousands were executed.
• The violence of the Reign of Terror and subsequent governments led critics to blame the Enlightenment for promoting instability and questioned the ability of the masses to govern themselves.
• Historians view the French Revolution as the end of the Enlightenment. France eventually reverted to a military dictatorship under Napoleon for fifteen years.

Long-Term Influence

• Despite the violence of the French Revolution and ongoing resentment toward many Enlightenment thinkers, the movement had a profoundly positive impact on the Western world.
• Scientific advancements during this period established a solid foundation for modern thought, while political and philosophical ideas challenged and eventually dismantled oppressive traditions that had persisted for centuries in Europe.
• After a period of instability, most of Europe and the United States emerged from the Enlightenment in a stronger position, benefiting from increased freedom, greater opportunities, and more humane treatment for individuals.
• Though there was still much progress to be made, the Enlightenment represented a pivotal moment when Western civilization began to evolve toward a more civilized and progressive state.